FOODS AND COOKERY 

AND 

THE CARE OF THE HOUSE 



MARY LMATTHEWS 




Copyright N .. 



CQEmiGRT DEPOSIT- 



FOODS AND COOKERY 
AND THE CARE OF THF HOUSE 




A Canning-club Winner 



FOODS AND COOKERY 

AND 

THE CARE OF THE HOUSE 

FIRST LESSONS 
FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 

BY 

MARY LOCKWOOD MATTHEWS, B.S. 

PROFESSOR OF HOME ECONOMICS AND HEAD OF THE 

DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS IN 

PURDUE UNIVERSITY 



N ON-RE FERT 

§ 

a 

o 




CO 

< 

X 

o 
z 



BOSTON 

LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY 

1921 






to3 
3* 



Copyright, 1921, 
By Little, Brown, and Company. 

All rights reserved 



NortoootJ 3Prca» 

Set up and clectrotyped by J. S. Gushing Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



©CIA611313 
— fc 



PREFACE 

This volume is intended for use in classes begin- 
ning the study of foods and cookery. It has been 
arranged for use in the elementary schools and does 
not presuppose any training in general science. It 
is strictly an elementary treatment of the subject. 

The book deals with foods, their selection and 
preparation, and the planning of meals from the 
nutritive, aesthetic and economic standpoints. The 
"meal plan" is used in order to make the meal the 
basis of the work. Through the "Home Problems" 
the home and school work may be correlated. 

The author appreciates the help given in illus- 
trating the book by the United States Department 
of Agriculture, the United States Bureau of Stand- 
ards, the Detroit Stove Works, and the Chambers 
Manufacturing Company. The author also grate- 
fully acknowledges the criticisms and suggestions 
of educators who kindly read the manuscript. 



TO THE STUDENT 

Have you thought about what you will do when 
you finish school ? 

Perhaps you have decided to be a teacher, a 
librarian, a stenographer, a doctor, a nurse. Perhaps 
you are making plans to take a course in high school 
or college that will fit you for one of these callings ; 
you would not consider yourself capable of entering 
any of them without training. 

Very probably you will be at some time the 
manager of a home. Have you thought about the 
importance of being trained for home-making? 

It is only within the past twenty-five years that 
it has been considered proper for the public schools 
to train girls for the work which most of them will 
do for the longest period in their lives, the work of 
home-making. 

Mrs. Ellen H. Richards was the first to say that 
the schools ought to teach " right living;" and, 
largely through her efforts and her inspiration, plans 
have been worked out whereby girls while in school 
can be taught many things about right living. 

Right living begins with the home. Who makes 
the home? The man may furnish the money to 
build and maintain the house, but it is the woman 
who plans and manages the home. It is her busi- 
ness to see that the family lives in a sanitary and an 
attractive house ; that every member of the family 



viii TO THE STUDENT 

has clean, properly selected and well cooked food ; 
that every one is suitably clothed ; that the family 
income is wisely spent, and that all in the home are 
helped to lead a happy and useful life. 

No girl should consider the making and managing 
of a home an easy piece of work, for in fact nothing 
is harder to do and to do well. 

When the girl takes work in school and college 
that covers all phases of home-making, we say that 
she is taking a course in Home Economics. 



SUGGESTIONS 

When planning a course in Home Economics for 
any school it is essential that the teacher should know 
from what kinds of homes the students come ; what 
is the average income of the families of these girls ; 
what nationalities they represent ; what is the social 
life of the neighborhood. It is impracticable to 
follow any textbook, page by page, without first 
knowing whether the lesson-plans suit the students 
to whom they are presented. When the teacher 
knows the neighborhood, she can wisely select and 
arrange the parts of the book to be assigned. 

In many cases the recipes outlined in this book 
should be changed ; and in no case should they be 
used as presented when the teacher has recipes 
which she has tested and knows to be good, and 
which may be used to illustrate the principle that is 
under discussion. 

The Foods and Cookery lessons are outlined on 
the meal basis, making the meal the project, while 
the lessons on various foods are the problems to be 
studied before the project is completed. It is de- 
sirable that the laboratory equipment should include 
dining-room equipment, but when that is not avail- 
able, serving the meal on a supply-table or at the 
individual desks may be the plan used. In any 
case the girls should be urged to try the work at 
home, making reports on the work done. 



x SUGGESTIONS 

Lessons on the house and its care are correlated 
with the other work whenever possible. 

The book is divided into sections instead of 
lessons, thus giving the teacher the opportunity to 
use as much or as little as is desired at any one time, 
since the amount of time allowed for Home Eco- 
nomics varies greatly in different schools. 

The "Home Problems and Questions" may furnish 
material for lessons if plenty of time is allotted to 
this course, or may be used only as work to be done 
outside of class hours. 

Illustrations and exhibit material that can be 
secured will help to make the work more interesting. 
The following firms furnish " school exhibits" that 
will be found useful: E. C. Bridgman, 61 Warren 
St., New York City, meat charts ; Hershey Choco- 
late Company, Hershey, Pa., chocolate products; 
Diamond Crystal Salt Company, St. Clair, Mich., 
folder showing how salt is prepared ; Pillsbury 
Flour Mills Company, Minneapolis, Minn., wheat- 
flour manufacture; Walter Baker & Company, 
Dorchester, Mass., chocolate products ; The Ameri- 
can Silver Company, Silversmith Building, Chicago, 
111., "The Evolution of a Teaspoon" (50 cents 
postage) ; Washburn Crosby Company, Minne- 
apolis, Minn., flour exhibit ; The Walter M. Lowney 
Company, Boston, Mass., chocolate ; Wilson & 
Company, Chicago, 111., meat charts, and recipes 
for cooking meat. 

In addition to the reference-books that should be 
found in the school library there are bulletins which 
are very valuable as reference material. Write to 
the following addresses and ask that publications be 
sent to you and your name put on their permanent 



SUGGESTIONS xi 

mailing list : Division of Home Economics, Bureau 
of Education, Washington, D. C. ; Children's 
Bureau, Department of Labor, Washington, D. C. ; 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ; 
United States Public Health Service, Treasury De- 
partment, Washington, D. C. ; Federal Board for 
Vocational Education, Washington, D. C. ; all 
State universities and agricultural colleges ; Ameri- 
can Home Economics Association, 1211 Cathedral 
Street, Baltimore, Md., "The Journal of Home 
Economics" ($2 per year). In writing to the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture ask also for a list of Farmers' 
Bulletins and for publications issued by the Office 
of Home Economics. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 
V 



Preface 

To the Student v ii 

Suggestions ix 

List of Illustrations xv 



Preliminary Lessons 

Processes Used in Cooking 
Some Points about Food 
The Kitchen 

Apparatus for the Kitchen 
Dishwashing 



3 
7 

10 
16 
21 



Project I — Breakfast 

The Breakfast Plan 27 

Beverages 30, 34 

Fruit 37 

Milk .39 

Cereals 44 

Bread 46, 51 

Eggs 56 

The Dining Room 60 

Table Manners 63 

Style of Serving 67 



Project II — Supper or Luncheon 
The Plan for Supper or Luncheon 
Meat Substitutes 

Salads 

Dried Fruits .... 
Quick Breads .... 



. 70 
73,76 



84 
87 



xiv CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Cake 91 

The School Lunch ....... 95 

Project III — Dinner 

The Dinner Plan 101 

Vegetables 106 

The Potato Ill 

Other Starchy Foods 114 

Meat . . . . . . . . 119, 123 

Soups 130 

Poultry, Game and Fish 133 

Desserts 138 

The Daily Meals of the Family Group . . .143 

Project IV — Food Preservation 

The Preservation of Foods 153 

Canning 157 

Jelly-making 162 

Project V — Christmas Lessons 166 

Project VI — Supplementary Lessons 

The Care of the House 169, 172 

Food for the Sick 176 

Index 183 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



A Canning-club Winner 



A Cooking Laboratory in a Rural School . 

Card-file Cook Book 

One Type of Cooking-apron — Kimono Style 

Kitchen Equipment 

A Convenient Kitchen .... 
" Routing Lines" in a Kitchen . 
"Routing Lines" in a Well Arranged Kitchen 
Circulation of Air around Oven . 

Fireless Gas Range 

The Fireless Cooker 

One-piece Kitchen Sink, an Excellent Type 

Circulation of Air in Two Common Types of Refrigerator 

Three Types of Coffee-pots 

Sandwiches made in Different Shapes 

Equipment for Bread-making . 

Bread-mixer 

Good Loaves of Bread 

Bread Pans, Bread-stick Pans and Baking-sheet 
Folding the Omelet as it Comes from the Pan . 
Proper Way to Hold Knife and Fork 
Arrangement of "Cover" for Dinner 
Serving-dish Passed to the Left .... 
Correct Method of Holding Soup or Bouillon Spoon 
A Bean-pot Used for Baking Beans . 

Food-grinder 

Three Salads 



Frontispiece 

PAGE 

3 



4 
6 
9 
11 
12 
14 
17 
IS 
20 
22 
25 
32 
36 
48 
50 
52 
54 
59 
64 
66 
68 
72 
78 
79 
82 



XVI 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Cake-mixer 

Lunch-box 

Busy Cooks in a Rural School . 

Deep-fat Kettle, with Frying-Basket 

No. 2, Croquettes. No. 3, Meat Loaf. No. 5 

wiches 

American Meat-cutting Chart — Beef 
American Meat-cutting Chart — Veal 
American Meat-cutting Chart — Lamb 
American Meat-cutting Chart — Pork 
Serving the Dinner with a Tea-cart . 
Cold-pack Canning .... 
Types of Canners .... 
Types of Jars Used in Canning . 
Attractive Jars of Fruits and Vegetables 
Types of Jelly Glasses 
Pasteboard House, with Furnishings . 
Invalid's Tray, Supported by Pillow . 
Invalid's Tray, Well Arranged . 



Pea Sand 



PAGE 

92 

96 

98 

103 

104 
124 
125 
126 
127 
144 
154 
157 
158 
159 
163 
173 
177 
178 



FOODS AND COOKERY, AND THE CARE 
OF THE HOUSE 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



AND 



THE CARE OF THE HOUSE 



PROCESSES USED IN COOKING 

Food is cooked : (1) to improve its appearance, 
(2) to improve its flavor, (3) to make some food- 
stuffs more digestible, and (4) to kill micro- 
organisms. 




A Cooking Laboratory in a Rural School 

The first cooking that was done by primitive man 
was the roasting of game by the open fire and 
the parching of corn on hot stones, both processes 



FOODS AND COOKERY 




requiring no cooking equipment. Before water 
could be used as a cooking medium, primitive woman 

had to begin pot- 
tery-making and 
basket-weaving ; she 
had to have utensils 
which would hold 
the water. Food 
was first cooked in 
water by placing 
hot stones in the 
water with the food, 
not by placing the 
utensil containing 
the water over the 
fire. Some pro- 
cesses used in camp 
cookery are modified 
forms of primitive 
cooking. 
Cooking processes at our command to-day are : 
I. Direct application of heat. 

1. Broiling: cooking over a hot fire, exposing 
the surfaces of food to the direct heat, 
with short cooking of the interior of the 
food ; example, broiled beefsteak. 

2. Roasting : cooking by an open fire, exposing 
the surface to the direct heat, but allow- 
ing a long period of cooking for the in- 
terior of the food ; example, a roast 
cooked under the direct gas flame in an 
oven. 

Strictly speaking, the popular use of 
the word " roasting", as applied to meat 



Card-file Cook Book 

One card is to be used for each recipe. 
Card may be hung up in a convenient 
place while in use. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 5 

cooked in an oven, is incorrect. " Roast 
chicken" and " roast beef" are really 
baked meats. 
II. Application by means of heated air. 

Baking : cooking in a heated oven ; example, 
baked bread. 

III. Application by means of heated water. 

1. Boiling: cooking in boiling water ; example, 

boiled potatoes. 

2. Stewing or simmering : cooking in water 

below the boiling-point ; example, beef 
stew. 

IV. Application by means of steam. 

Steaming : (a) cooking in a utensil into which 
steam passes; example, steamed pudding; 
(b) cooking in a closed utensil surrounded 
by steam ; example, milk heated in double- 
boiler. 
V. Application by means of heated fat. 

1. Sauteing: cooking in a small quantity of 

fat ; example, browned potatoes. 

2. Frying : cooking in hot fat deep enough to 

cover the food ; example, croquettes. 
VI. Application by means of heated metal. 

1 . Pan-broiling : cooking in a frying-pan or 
on a griddle without the addition of fat ; 
example, broiled bacon. 
VII. Combination processes. 

1. Braising: a combination of stewing and 

baking ; example, casserole of beef. 

2. Fricasseeing : a combination of sauteing 

and stewing ; example, fricasseed chicken. 

In all cooking great care must be taken to follow 

directions carefully. When tested recipes fail, it 



6 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



is usually the fault of the cook and not the fault of 
the recipe. Cooking becomes much more interesting 
when one understands why certain processes are 
followed, and in the laboratory work in a school 

course this is one of the 
important things to learn. 
Every girl should learn 
to work accurately yet 
quickly, making only 
what motions are neces- 
sary, thereby saving time 
and energy. Sometimes 
there is only one "best" 
way to do a thing; in 
other cases there may be 
several equally good, and 
it is always wise to use 
methods that are con- 
sidered the best by ex- 
perts. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

DIRECTIONS FOR WORK IN 
LABORATORY 

Personal appearance : 

1. A wash dress is 
always to be preferred in 
the school laboratory or 
home kitchen. 

2. White aprons should 
be worn in the cooking 

laboratory. There are several types that may be used. 
3. Holders for lifting hot dishes, and individual hand 
towels, should always be used by every student. 




One Type of Cooking-apron 
— Kimono Style 



FOODS AND COOKERY 7 

4. The hair should be brushed back and fastened so 
that it does not fall in the face. If white caps are worn 
they should be pulled down to cover the front of the 
hair. 

5. The hands should be thoroughly washed and the 
nails scrubbed with a brush and cleaned thoroughly 
before you begin any cooking. When cooking, wash 
your hands whenever they become sticky or soiled. 

6. Do not wear rings, bracelets, or other jewelry 
in the kitchen. 

Directions for work should include : 

Assignment to desks. 

Checking equipment. 

Discussion of rules regarding care of towels, desks, 
implements, etc. 

Explanation of the kind of notebooks, reference books, 
or textbooks required. 



SOME POINTS ABOUT FOOD 

When people or animals go without food too long, 
they lose flesh and become very weak ; finally all 
motion of the body ceases. The eating of proper food 
is very important if the body is to be kept well and 
strong. 

Food makes muscle, fat, bone, blood, hair and 
teeth ; it produces the energy which is needed for 
all movements of the body, and it also supplies the 
warmth required. Only a part of the food is used 
by the body for the purposes named, and such parts 
are called foodstuffs or the food principles. 

There are five main classes of foodstuffs. In 
some foods only one class of foodstuffs is found, 
while in other foods several or all of the foodstuffs 
may be present. 



8 FOODS AND COOKERY 

The five groups of foodstuffs are : 

1. Protein, used in the body for body-building, 

and to produce energy and warmth. It is 
present in such foods as meat, milk, cheese, 
cereals and legumes. 

2. Carbohydrates, used in the body to produce 

energy and warmth. They are found in such 
foods as potatoes, rice, fruits, cereals and 
legumes. 

3. Fat, used in the body to produce energy and 

warmth. It is found in large amounts in 
such foods as butter, cream, olive oil and fat 
meat. 

4. Minerals, used in the body for body-building, 

and found in most foods. 

5. Water, used in the body to help in digesting 

the food and in carrying away waste material 

from the organs of the body, thus keeping 

the body in a healthy condition. Water is 

found in practically all foods in either large 

or small amounts. 

Besides these five foodstuffs there is found in some 

foods a very important class of substances called 

vitamines. Little is known about the vitamines 

except that there are probably two kinds, and that 

they are necessary for the body growth and also to 

keep the body in health. One kind is found in butter, 

egg-yolk and such vegetables as lettuce, spinach and 

dandelions. The other kind is present in vegetables, 

fruits and whole cereals. Milk contains both kinds. 

When the meals for the day are planned, foods 

must be selected that will furnish some of each of the 

foodstuffs and vitamines, so that the body shall 

not lack material for growth, warmth and energy. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 9 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
MEASUREMENTS 

Careful measuring or weighing of the ingredients used 
in a recipe is very necessary if the results are to be of the 
best. The utensils commonly used for measuring foods 
are : scales, measuring-cup, measuring-spoons, table- 
spoons and teaspoons. In measuring dry materials, fill 



^■m 




"^^_ ' : '#sdT 


9 ^f 


BS^ff. 





Kitchen Equipment 

Double-boiler, vegetable-press, scales, oven and chemical thermometers, 
measuring-cups, spatula, wooden spoon and bread-rack. 

the measure and level off the top with a knife. When 
one half teaspoon is desired, divide the material length- 
wise of the spoon and scrape out one half. For one 
fourth teaspoon divide crosswise the remaining half. 

Experiment : 

Use water for the following : 

1. To find the number of teaspoons in one tablespoon. 

2. To find the number of tablespoons in one cup. 

3. To find the number of cups in one pint. 
Use sugar for the following : 

1. To find the number of tablespoons in one cup. 

2. To find the number of cups in one pound. 



10 FOODS AND COOKERY 

Use flour for the following : 

1. Fill the cup by dipping it into the flour ; weigh. 

2. Fill the cup by using a spoon ; weigh. 

3. Sift the flour, fill the cup by using a spoon ; weigh. 
Use salt for the following : 

1. Measure one half, one fourth, and one eighth 
teaspoon. 

BAKED STUFFED PEPPERS 

Cut a thick slice from the stem-end of each pepper, 
remove all the seeds, wash thoroughly and let drain. Use 
enough stale bread crumbs to fill the peppers ; add salt 
to taste, as much butter as desired and enough water to 
slightly moisten the crumbs. Heat this mixture until the 
butter is melted. Fill the peppers. Place them in a 
baking-dish in an upright position, and on top of each 
place a small square of bacon. Put water in baking-dish 
one half inch in depth. Bake slowly for forty-five 
minutes or until tender. 

Have you ever seen green peppers used in any other 
way? Perhaps some one can bring to school a good 
recipe that may be copied in the class notebook and tried 
at home by other members of the class. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. For what purpose is food used in the body? 

2. Name the five foodstuffs (food principles). 

3. Name some foods in which each is found. 

4. Do foods ever contain more than one foodstuff? 

5. Name one food in which vitamines are found. 



THE KITCHEN 

The kitchen is a workshop where food is cared for, 
prepared, cooked and served. 

The most convenient kitchen has windows or doors 
on two sides of the room, so that when these are 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



11 



open, a cross draft of air clears the room of smoke 
and odors. 

The kitchen should be the cleanest room in the 
house. The most sanitary kitchen has walls finished 
in material that can be washed, such as oil paint or 
tile. Walls and woodwork should be light in color, 
because this makes the room seem more cheerful and 




A Convenient Kitchen 
With built-in ironing-board, ice-box and work-table. 



also makes it easy to "see the dirt", which then may 
be removed. 

Hard-wood floors may be oiled or waxed and used 
without covering. Soft-wood floors may be covered 
with linoleum or cork carpet, or they may be painted. 

The kitchen should have built-in cupboards with 
plenty of space for utensils. 

The sink, with a drain board at each end, should 
be set where there is plenty of light, and it should 




Dining Room 

"Routing Lines 



in a Kitchen 



A wheel-tray would be a convenience in removing dishes from the 
dining room. The refrigerator would be more convenient if built into 
the wall. 

12 



FOODS AND COOKERY 13 

be open underneath to avoid the dampness often 
found in sink cupboards. 

The kitchen may have a built-in ice-box arranged 
to be iced from the outside of the house. Some 
kitchens have a dumb waiter to the basement. 

If an ironing-board is used in the kitchen, it may be 
built into a space in the wall, being let down when 
needed and folded back when not in use. 

Other devices sometimes found in the kitchen are : 
a closet for cleaning implements, such as broom, 
bucket and brushes ; a cupboard for the leaves of 
the dining-table, and a built-in kitchen cabinet. 
There may also be a pantry. 

Each housekeeper decides for herself how to make 
the kitchen a well arranged and equipped workshop. 
In a well arranged kitchen the equipment is so 
placed that the housekeeper can use it without losing 
time or wasting strength in walking. 

HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS 

Make a drawing of your home kitchen, showing 
where the sink, the cupboards, the table, the stove 
and other equipment are placed. 

Notice with care the steps taken by a person 
preparing breakfast, and then make dotted lines 
on your drawing to show where she has walked. 
Such a line is called a " routing line." 

Do you think any of the equipment could be 
changed to make the kitchen more convenient? 

Bring your drawing to school for discussion. 



14 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



Dining Room 



Working Space 
Supply Cupboard 



Broom 
Closet 



Porch 




Working 
Surface 

Table 

and 

Supplies 



Refnger 
ator 




"Routing Lines" in a Well Arranged Kitchen 

If the refrigerator were built into the wall it could be filled from the 
porch outside. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 15 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

STUDY OF STOVES 
Experiment : 

Examine the stoves to be used in the laboratory. 
If a gas range : 

1. What kinds of ovens are there? 

2. Is there a pilot to use when lighting the ovens? 

3. Do the oven doors fasten tightly? 

4. Does the top burner have a stationary or movable 

mixer? 

5. If there is a movable mixer, light the gas burner 

and observe the color of the flame ; turn the 
mixer and observe the flame. 

6. What color should the flame be to give the most 

heat? 

7. Place a bright clean kettle, containing a small 

amount of water, over the yellow flame. 
What happens to the outside of the kettle ? 

8. What is the use of the mixer? 

9. How is the top burner removed for cleaning? 
10. Can other parts be removed for cleaning? 

If a coal or wood range : 

1. Examine the firebox to see how it is constructed. 

2. Where is the ash-pan? How are the ashes re- 

moved ? 

3. Find the dampers on the stove, and determine 

the use of each. 

4. For what is the stovepipe used ? 

5. How does the heat warm the oven ? 

6. Lay the fire in the following manner. Clean the 

firebox and ash-pan, crumple paper and put a 
generous layer over the bottom of the fire- 
box ; place kindling on top of the paper in 
such a way that the air passes between the 
pieces ; place one large or two small shovelfuls 
of coal or sticks of stove wood on top of the 



16 FOODS AND COOKERY 

kindling. How shall the drafts be arranged 
before the fire is lighted? Clean the top of 
the stove before lighting the fire. 

ORANGEADE 

Juice of one orange lj tbsp. sugar 

^ tsp. lemon juice § c. water 

Mix ingredients thoroughly. Perhaps the mixture 
may need straining. Chill before serving. 

Fruitade or lemonade may be made also. 



APPARATUS FOR THE KITCHEN 

Stoves are of various types and must be selected 
to suit the kind of fuel to be used and the sise of the 
kitchen in which they are to be placed. 

A fuel is a substance which when burned produces 
heat, and it is this heat that cooks food when applied 
to it. 

Wood, coal, gasoline, kerosene, manufactured 
and natural gas, are the fuels commonly used. 
Electricity is also used for cooking, but is not a fuel. 
The stove is the apparatus in which the fuel is 
burned and through which the heat is given off. 

In selecting a stove or range, choose one that is plain 
in design and has little nickel finish. A stove 
covered with decorations is hard to keep clean. 
Many gas and electric ranges have the oven built 
on a level with the top of the stove. The oven is 
easier to use in this position than when underneath 
the burners. 

Gas and electric stoves are now made with tireless 
cooking attachments for both boiling and baking. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 17 

While these are more expensive in price than other 

types, they are great savers of fuel when properly used. 

A stove must be in good condition if it is to do 

good cooking. A coal or wood range must have 




Circulation of Air around Oven 

soot and ashes removed regularly from the inside of 
pipes, firebox and ash-pit. Whenever gas burners 
cannot be regulated to burn without a yellow flame, 
they must be taken apart and cleaned by boiling in 
a weak solution of soda. 

There should be in the kitchen a supply of cooking 



18 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



utensils of the right kind to meet any need. Good 
utensils to use for boiling, stewing and steaming are 
made of aluminum or enamel ware of good grade ; 
for baking, earthenware, glass, sheet iron and tin 
are used ; iron is used for sauteing and frying. 

Aluminum, wooden, or heavily plated tin spoons 
are needed in the kitchen. These are better than 

enameled spoons be- 
cause enamel is apt 
to chip off when the 
spoon strikes hard 
surfaces. Steel 
knives are best with 
the steel blade run- 
ning through and 
riveted h?to the 
wooden handle. 
One or more spatu- 
las should be a part 
of the equipment. 

Any device that 
aids in doing work 
as well, but more quickly and easily than it has been 
done before, is a labor-saving device. 

Fireless cookers, pressure and steam cookers, 
cake and bread-mixers, food-grinders and double- 
boilers are examples of labor-saving devices that 
are useful in the kitchen. Every housekeeper should 
have as many labor-saving devices as possible. 




Fireless Gas Range 

Observe "hood" under which 
cooking may be done 
be made "fireless." 



fireless 
The oven may also 



HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS 

Find the price of the following : a gas range, a 
coal or wood range, a two-compartment fireless 



FOODS AND COOKERY 19 

cooker, food -grinders, double-boilers, spatulas, re- 
frigerators, garbage-cans. 

Look through the advertisements in the magazines 
and papers, at home or in the public library, and 
make a list of other labor-saving devices and cooking 
utensils not named in the lesson. How many of 
these have you seen used ? 

Bring the lists to school for discussion. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

TEMPERATURES 
Experiment : 

Examine the thermometer to be used in taking 
temperatures. 

1. Is it a centigrade or Fahrenheit thermometer? 

2. What is " boiling-point " on each? freezing- 

point? 

3. (a) What is the temperature of one cup of water in 

the top part of a double-boiler after the water 
in the lower part has been boiling twenty 
minutes? Continue boiling. Does the water 
in the top part of the double-boiler ever reach 
boiling-point ? (6) What is the temperature of 
one cup of water in a small saucepan over direct 
heat when the first small bubbles appear on the 
surface? when the large bubbles come to the 
surface and break? when the fire is turned 
higher and the bubbles form and break more 
quickly? The vapor which comes off the sur- 
face of the water is called steam. Continue 
boiling the water for a few minutes; remove 
from the fire and measure the water. What 
has happened ? 
Examine the tireless cooker, if there is one in the 
laboratory ; if not, the class may make one, following 



20 FOODS AND COOKERY 




The Fireless Cooker 
Placing the heated stone in the cooker. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 21 

the directions given in Farmers' Bulletin No. 771, 
" Home-made Fireless Cookers and their Use ", ob- 
tained by writing to the U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, Washington, D. C. 

ROLLED OATS 

3 c. boiling water 1 c. rolled oats 1 tsp. salt 

Heat water to boiling point by placing the top part of 
the double-boiler over direct heat ; add salt ; stir in the 
rolled oats. Cook ten minutes. Place over water in the 
double-boiler ; cook one hour. 

This may be cooked in the fireless cooker. 

If the fireless cooker has a large compartment, fill the 
large kettle half full of boiling water, place the prepared 
oatmeal in a small tightly covered kettle, and set on the 
wire rack placed inside the large kettle, so that the hot 
water is below the top of the small kettle. Close the 
cooker and do not open until the food is needed for the 
meal. Cereals may be put in the fireless cooker at night 
and will then be ready for breakfast in the morning. 

DISHWASHING 

The housekeeper sometimes considers dishwashing 
" drudgery ", and it may be so when poor equipment 
is used for the task, or when she does not know how 
to do the work correctly. The best type of house- 
keeper feels that every part of her work is worth 
doing well, and whenever she thinks about why she 
is doing the task, it ceases to be drudgery. To know 
the reason for washing dishes helps to make the 
work more interesting. Dishes are washed to make 
them more sanitary and more pleasing to use. It 
is not safe nor pleasant to eat from dirty or sticky 
dishes. 



22 FOODS AND COOKERY 

The equipment needed for washing dishes consists 
of plenty of clean hot water, good soap, or soap 
powder, scouring-powder, dishpans, dish-drainer, 
dishcloth and mops, dish-towels, bottle and sink 
brushes; and there may be added a plate-scraper, 
a metal dishcloth and soap-shaker. 

There are two kinds of water, hard and soft. When 
soap will not make good suds in the water, it is 
because the water is "hard." Hard water is water 
that has taken up lime or iron from the soil, and is 



One-piece Kitchen Sink; an excellent type 

the kind that usually comes from wells. Rain 
water is soft water, and is better for washing dishes 
because soap makes a good suds in it. If hard water 
must be used, borax, ammonia, or a strong soap 
powder or soap must be added. 

Soap is best for use when it is very dry. It may 
be purchased by the dozen cakes or bars, or by the 
box. Some persons make "soft" soap at home by 
boiling scraps of fat with lye made from wood ashes. 
The steps in washing dishes correctly are : 
1. Remove the dishes from the table. Remove 
the bits of food from the plates with the rubber 



FOODS AND COOKERY 23 

plate-scraper or a piece of paper. Rinse off very 
dirty dishes. Pile together dishes that are alike. 

2. Put to soak all cooking utensils. Hot water 
should be put in those which have contained sugar 
or syrup, and cold water in those which have been 
used with milk, eggs, cereal, starch or flour. 

3. Pour hot water in the dishpan, make a good 
suds with the soap, use a clean dishcloth (not a 
"rag") or mop, and wash every dish carefully. 
Do not have the dishpan full of dirty dishes while 
washing. Always wash the cleanest dishes first. 

4. Place the washed dishes in a drain-pan or 
dish-drier, being careful not to crowd them. Crowd- 
ing dishes in a pan is apt to chip them and makes 
it hard to scald them thoroughly. This pan or drier 
should be placed at the left of the pan in which the 
dishes are washed because this will save unnecessary 
motions in putting the dishes from one into the other. 

5. Rinse the dishes thoroughly with boiling 
water, being sure that each dish has been rinsed 
inside and out. If the dishes have been scalded in 
a dish-drier, it may be set on the drain-board and the 
dishes allowed to dry without wiping. The silver 
and glass should be washed first. They will look 
best when wiped and polished dry with a towel. 
Some persons like to dry all the dishes with a towel. 
This is a good method, but it takes more time than 
drying them in a rack or drier. 

6. Scrape out and rinse off the cooking utensils. 
Use plenty of hot soapy water for washing them ; 
wash thoroughly, both inside and out, scouring if 
necessary. Rinse with boiling water and wipe dry. 
Steel knives may be scoured with scouring-powder 
applied with a cork. 



24 FOODS AND COOKERY 

7. Wash off the drain-boards and tables, and 
scour them with the powder and a brush if necessary. 
Use clean water for this. Wash out the sink and 
scour it with a brush and scouring-powder when the 
soapy water will not remove the stains. 

8. Wash the dish-towels in clean soapy water, 
removing all spots. Rinse in clean water, shake 
out and pull into shape. Hang to dry on a rack for 
this purpose in the kitchen, or better still, hang out- 
doors in the sun. Wash and rinse the dishcloth or 
dish-mop. 

9. Clean out the dishpan thoroughly, wipe it 
dry and put it away. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
CARE OF EQUIPMENT 

The Sink 

1. Find the waste-pipe; the trap. Of what value is 
the trap? 

2. Of what material is the sink made ? 

3. Of what material are the drain-boards made? 

4. Of what material are the faucets made ? 

5. To clean the sink : 

(a) Faucets — brass may be cleaned with scouring- 
powder. If stained, use vinegar or lemon 
juice before scouring ; nickel needs only wash- 
ing with soap and water. 

(6) Wash drain-boards and sink; see lesson above 
(Section 7) . 

Every sink needs a sink-strainer through which dish- 
water or other liquids may be poured, thereby catching 
all refuse. Clean boiling water should be poured down 
the waste-pipe after very greasy water. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



25 



The Refrigerator 

1. Find the waste-pipe. Into what does it drain? 
Can it be removed for cleaning? 

2. Of what material is the lining of the refrigerator? 

3. What other parts of the refrigerator may be removed 
when cleaning? 

4. To clean the refrigerator : 

(a) Remove immediately any food that has been 
spilled. 

(6) Once a week remove all food and ice ; take 
out the shelves and other parts ; wash these 
and the inside of the ice-box with clean, 



Ice 



k 



= 3 T7 fe 



rs 



y 



Coldest Part 
Warm Warm 



/ v 



Warm 



Warm 




Warmest Part 






Coldest 
Part 



Circulation of Air in Two Common Types of Refrigerator 



warm, soapy water and rinse with clean cold 
water; a solution of washing soda may be 
poured down the drain-pipe. Do the work as 
quickly as possible. 



26 FOODS AND COOKERY 

The Garbage-Can 

If no liquid material is placed in the garbage-can, the 
garbage may be wrapped in newspaper before placing in 
the can. This keeps the can in excellent condition. 

1. To clean, when garbage is wrapped, wash out with 
clean, hot, soapy water once a week. 

2. To clean, when garbage is not wrapped, scrub with 
a brush, using a strong washing-soda solution ; rinse 
with boiling water; dry in the sun. A dirty garbage- 
can has a bad smell and attracts flies. A garbage-can 
must always be kept tightly covered. 



RICED POTATOES 

Wash and peel a potato. Cook in boiling salted water, 
allowing \ tsp. of salt to one pint of water. Boil gently. 
When the potato can be pierced to the center easily with 
a fork, remove from the water. Press through the vege- 
table press or ricer into a hot dish. Serve. 

MASHED POTATOES 

To the riced potato add two teaspoons of hot milk ; 
one half teaspoon of butter ; salt to taste. Beat with a 
fork until the mixture is light and fluffy. Place in a hot 
dish and serve. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What equipment is needed for washing dishes well? 

2. What arc the two kinds of water used ? 

3. Which is the best kind to use for dishwashing? Why? 

4. How should the dishes be prepared for washing? the 
cooking utensils? 

5. State the steps in washing and drying dishes. 

6. How should the dish-towels and dishcloth be cared for 
after dishwashing? 

7. Have you ever washed dishes by this method? 

8. Have you ever seen a dishwasher used? 



FOODS AND COOKERY 27 

THE BREAKFAST PLAN 

There are many types of breakfast that may be 
served, and every family will have its own particular 
plan for this meal. 

The foods generally used for breakfast are fruit, 
cereals, bread and beverages, with sometimes egg, 
meat or vegetable dishes. 

The menu should vary with (1) the time of year, 
(2) the type of work which the members of the family 
are doing, (3) the kind of meal eaten the night before, 
and (4) the size, weight and age of the members of 
the family. 

In the summer it is well to avoid eating much meat, 
and meat can easily be omitted from breakfast. 

It is well, also, to eat less heat-producing food in 
summer than in winter, because then the body does 
not need so much heat to keep it warm. 

When too much food is eaten, a good deal is* lost 
because some foodstuffs cannot be stored in the body 
and must, therefore, be carried off from the body 
in the form of waste material. 

If a man is doing hard work out of doors he needs 
more food than does the man who sits all day at his 
desk in an office, because the man in the office does 
not use so much muscular energy in doing his work 
as does the man who works with his muscles. 

If dinner is the meal served in the evening, the family 
does not wish nor need much for breakfast the follow- 
ing morning. If a light supper is the last meal of the 
day, then more food should be served for breakfast. 

The members of the family differ in size, weight 
and age, and the food eaten should vary in amount 
and kind. The baby and small child should not 



28 FOODS AND COOKERY 

eat the same food, nor so much, as the man in the 
family. How then shall the meal be planned to suit 
each member of the family? It is a good plan to 
make a menu that contains enough food of the right 
kind for the man, and to haye in that menu some 
food that will suit the small child. 

The following are some general suggestions for 
planning the breakfast : 

1. Breakfast consisting of fruit, bread and bever- 
age ; suitable for the man who works in an office 
and the woman who does light work. For the small 
child, cereal and milk would have to be added and 
tea or coffee omitted. 

2. Breakfast consisting of fruit, cereal, bread 
and beverage ; suitable for the man who does a 
good deal of walking but works indoors, and for the 
woman who does ordinary housework, office work, 
or teaching. With cocoa or milk as the beverage, 
this would be good for the small child, the school- 
girl or boy, and the college student. 

3. Breakfast consisting of fruit, eggs, bread and 
a beverage, instead of No. 2. Milk and cereal, how- 
ever, should be added for the child. 

4. Breakfast of fruit, cereal, a meat or egg dish, 
bread and a beverage; suitable for the man doing 
hard manual work out of doors, or for women doing 
hard manual work. The meat should be omitted 
in the child's diet, and milk or cocoa used as the 
beverage. 

5. Breakfast consisting of fruit, cereal, meat or 
egg dish, a vegetable, bread and a beverage. This 
breakfast is a very heavy meal and should be eaten 
only by a man doing hard manual labor out of doors 
in cold weather. Many families eating this type 



FOODS AND COOKERY 29 

of breakfast do so because they like it and not 
because they need the food in the daily diet. In 
many cases they would be in better health if less food 
were eaten. 



HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS 

Are these good breakfast plans ? Why ? 

1. For a hot summer morning: stewed fruit, 
sausage, buckwheat cakes, coffee. 

2. For a small child : coffee, cereal, meat dish and 
hot biscuit. 

3. For a man doing hard manual labor out of 
doors : fruit, coffee, toast. 

4. For the schoolgirl : fruit, cereal, cocoa and 
toast. 

Make two good plans for your breakfast at this 
season of the year. 

Make two good plans for the breakfast of a small 
child at this season of the year. 

Bring these plans to class for discussion. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

FRUIT FOR BREAKFAST 

ORANGES 

1. Wash the orange, cut through crosswise, serve on 
plate. 

2. Wash the orange, remove the skin and as much of 
the white portion as possible, divide in sections, arrange 
attractively on plate, serve. 

3. Wash the orange, cut in halves, squeeze out the 
juice, using the lemon-squeezer; put juice in glass, cool, 
set on fruit-plate, serve. 



30 FOODS AND COOKERY 

BAKED APPLE 

Wash the apple, remove the core, leaving the apple 
whole, and fill the cavity with sugar. Raisins or nutmeg 
may be used also. Put a little water in the pan to pre- 
vent burning. Bake slowly until the apple is tender 
when pierced with a fork. 



BEVERAGES 

Beverages are made by combining liquids and 
flavoring materials. 

There are many kinds of beverages, examples of 
which are coffee, tea, cocoa, lemonade and grape 
juice. 

Water is the liquid used in making most beverages. 
In addition to the water taken in beverages one 
should drink a great deal of pure water, because the 
composition of the body is two thirds water. One 
may go without food for weeks, but it is not possible 
to live very long without water. Most persons, 
because of the taste, like to drink hard water in 
preference to soft water. Hard water comes from 
wells and deep springs, and has collected certain 
mineral substances from the soil over or through 
which it has come. 

When the soil is full of filth, the water flowing 
through it will be impure and may be the cause of 
typhoid fever, malaria, or other diseases. Impure 
water may be clear and sparkling in appearance, 
and the only way to be certain of its purity is to 
know about the source from which it comes. In 
the city, the water supply is so carefully watched 
that the water coming into the house is usually pure. 
If a well is so situated that the water coming into it 



FOODS AND COOKERY 31 

passes through soil into which a barnyard or an 
outside toilet or a pig-pen is drained, it is likely to 
be dangerous to health. 

When there is the slightest doubt about the 
purity of water, it should be boiled before drinking. 

Boiled water has a flat taste because some of the air 
in it has been driven off by boiling. The taste may 
be improved by pouring the water back and forth 
between two pitchers, thus forcing air into it again. 

Ice is frozen water, and is just as pure as the water 
from which it was made. Ice from a pond should 
never be dissolved in drinking-water or other bever- 
ages. Artificial ice is made by freezing water in 
tanks, the freezing temperature being secured by 
the evaporation of ammonia. This ice should be 
much purer than ice from ponds, lakes and rivers. 

At school every student should use his or her own 
drinking-cup unless there is a bubbling fountain. 
It is dangerous to drink out of a cup that has been 
used by other persons, because if any one has a 
disease, such as diphtheria, sore throat or tubercu- 
losis, it may be given to others who use the same cup. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

BEVERAGES 
Experiment : 

1. Examine coffee beans, finely ground, and pulver- 
ized coffee. What is the price of each? 

2. Examine samples of tea, both green and black ; 
compare the color and shape of the leaves. Are there 
bits of stem or other refuse present? Compare prices. 

3. Examine cocoa nibs, pulverized cocoa. 

4. Pour one half cup of boiling water over two tea- 
spoons of cocoa. Observe the liquid. 



32 FOODS AND COOKERY 

5. Mix together one half cup of cold water and two 
teaspoons of cocoa ; boil five minutes. Compare this 
with No. 4. What has happened? 

COCOA 

\ c. cocoa 1 c. water 

i c. sugar 3 c. milk 

\ tsp. salt Vanilla 

Mix cocoa, sugar, salt and water. Boil ten minutes. 
Heat milk in double-boiler, add to this the cocoa paste. 
Cook twenty minutes. Add vanilla. 

An attractive way to serve cocoa is to place a spoonful 
of whipped cream on top of each cup. 

COFFEE 

Coffee may be made in several ways. 
1. Boiled coffee, made with egg. 

1 heaping tbsp. of ground coffee 

1 c. water 

\ egg-shell or \ of an egg-white 




Three Types of Coffee-pots 

From left to right : drip coffee-pot, coffee percolator and pot for boiled 

coffee. 

Mix together coffee and egg, using a little of the water ; 
add the rest of the water. Boil gently for three to five 



FOODS AND COOKERY 33 

minutes. Let stand in warm place for five minutes. 
Serve. The egg is used to settle the grounds. 

2. Boiled coffee without egg. 

Use the same proportions as in No. 1. Place the ground 
coffee in a cheesecloth bag, being careful to pack it very loosely ; 
tie securely. 

3. Percolated coffee. 

Made in a percolator pot, constructed so that the ground 
coffee is placed in a container at the top. The water boils up 
through a tube to the ground coffee, and then drips back into the 
bottom of the pot. 

There are many kinds of percolators sold. 

4. Drip coffee. 

Like coffee made in percolator, except that the coffee-pot is 
arranged so that water must drip through the ground coffee 
from the top. 

TEA 

1 tsp. tea 1 c. water 

Heat fresh water to boiling-point. Pour it over the 
tea, let stand in a warm place three minutes. Pour off 
tea into hot teapot or cups. Serve at once. 

Tea should never be boiled, nor the water allowed to 
stand on the tea leaves longer than three minutes, be- 
cause the longer it stands the more tannic acid is present. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What is a beverage? 

2. Name some commonly used beverages. 

3. Why is it important to drink pure water? 

4. How should impure water be treated when it must be 
used for drinking? 

5. From what source does the water supply come that is 
used in your school? 

6. What is ice? 

7. When may ice be put into beverages? 

8. Where does the ice come from that is used in your 
neighborhood? What is the price of one hundred pounds? 



34 FOODS AND COOKERY 

BEVERAGES (Continued) 

Coffee, tea, cocoa and chocolate are the beverages 
generally used for breakfast. Coffee and tea should 
be used only by grown persons ; children may take 
cocoa. 

The coffee-bean or berry is the seed of a fruit 
resembling a cherry, and is produced on an evergreen 
tree that grows in nearly all tropical countries. 
Most of our coffee comes from South America, 
mainly from Brazil. In preparing coffee for market 
the cherry-like fruit is allowed to ferment so that the 
pulp surrounding the seeds may become soft and 
can be removed. These seeds contain two " beans' ' 
which grow with their flat sides together and are 
inclosed in a husk. This husk has to be dried and 
then removed, when the beans fall apart. The 
coffee-beans are then shipped to the country where 
they are to be sold. The beans are roasted to make 
them brittle and to develop flavor, and are sold to the 
housekeeper in this form, or as "ground coffee" 

Coffee loses its flavor and aroma very quickly 
after being ground if it is left in an open container, 
and for this reason some prefer to buy the roasted 
coffee-beans and grind them only as needed. 
Ground coffee should be sold in air-tight cans, but 
if sent from the store in paper sacks should be 
emptied into air-tight cans at once. 

Coffee contains substances that are often harmful 
for grown persons and are never good for children ; 
one is caffeine, a substance that stimulates the 
nerves ; another is tannic acid, which may disturb 
digestion. 

Most of the tea we use comes from China, Japan, 



FOODS AND COOKERY 35 

Ceylon and India. Tea is made from the leaves of 
a plant called Thea. The plant sends out four sets 
of new shoots a year, and the leaves from these 
shoots are gathered and cured for tea. 

There are two types of tea, black and green tea. 
Green tea is made by drying the tea leaves at a high 
temperature, which causes them to keep their green 
color and to curl up. Black tea is made by allowing 
the leaves to wither and ferment, which causes them 
to turn dark before being dried. This process gives 
black tea a flavor different from that of green tea. 

Tea contains a substance called "theine" which 
acts as a stimulant to the nerves. There is also 
present tannic acid, which is bad for the digestion. 

Cocoa is produced from the pod of the cocoa tree 
which grows in tropical countries. The pod is shaped 
somewhat like a cucumber, and inside are a large 
number of seeds surrounded by pulp. The seeds 
are removed from the pulp and, after being allowed 
to ferment a few days, are roasted. The husk is 
then removed and the seed is divided into two parts 
which are called "cocoa nibs." 

When cocoa nibs are ground and pressed into a 
cake, the cake is known as chocolate. This chocolate 
is rather bitter in taste and is used in cookery. 
When sugar is added to the cake it is called sweet 
chocolate. 

Cocoa is made from chocolate by removing a large 
part of the fat. It is then ground and sold in bulk 
or in tin containers. The fat that is removed from 
the chocolate is used for cocoa butter. Cocoa has a 
good deal of food value, and when served as a 
beverage in which milk is used adds food value to a 
meal. 



36 FOODS AND COOKERY 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
A RECEPTION FOR MOTHERS 

Invite the mothers of the girls to the school for the 
laboratory period. The members of the class should re- 
ceive and entertain them. Refreshments of tea, coffee or 
cocoa, sandwiches and marguerites, may be prepared 
and served by the girls. 

MARGUERITES 

12 wafers \ tsp. salt 

1 egg-white \ tsp. vanilla 

2 tbsp. powdered sugar \ c. chopped raisins or nuts, or 

the two mixed 

Beat the egg very stiff. Sugar should be pressed 
through a wire sieve before using. Add the other in- 
gredients to the sugar and mix carefully with beaten egg- 
white. Spread on top of the wafers. Brown in a moderate 
oven. 

SANDWICHES 

Cut the bread into very thin slices ; cream the butter 
by mashing and beating with a fork. Butter the slices 




Sandwiches Made in Different Shapes 

of bread, add jelly if desired, lay the slices together evenly. 
Sandwiches are often cut into fancy shapes, such as round, 



FOODS AND COOKERY 37 

triangular, rectangular, or square. The crust may be 
removed, if desired. The bread scraps may be saved 
for a bread pudding. Wrap the sandwiches in a dry 
cloth, then in a slightly damp cloth until ready to serve. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the preparation of coffee for market. 

2. How should coffee be cared for after it is purchased ? 

3. From what countries does most of the tea used in this 
country come? 

4. Describe the preparation of tea for market. 

5. Why are tea and coffee harmful to many people ? 

6. Should children drink tea or coffee ? 

7. What is cocoa? chocolate? cocoa nibs? 



FRUIT 

Fruit is very valuable in the diet and, if possible, 
should be included in the menu every day. Fresh 
fruit can be purchased in the market at all seasons 
of the year. Canned and dried fruits can always be 
substituted when the fresh fruit is too expensive or 
not available. 

Fruits are composed largely of water but contain 
sugar, which is one form of carbohydrate, very small 
amounts of protein and fat, and mineral matter. 
Fruit also contains vitamines. The mineral matter 
in fruit, including iron, phosphorus, lime, magnesia 
and potash, is very valuable to the body. 

The botanist says that fruits are the seed-bearing 
parts of the plant, but such foods as tomatoes and 
cucumbers, which really are fruits, we class as vege- 
tables. 

When fruits are considered as to their food value 
they are sometimes classified as (1) flavor fruits, 
containing a very large amount of water and very 



38 FOODS AND COOKERY 

small amounts of the foodstuffs, and (2) food fruits, 
containing less water and larger amounts of the 
foodstuffs. Examples of flavor fruits are straw- 
berries and watermelons. Examples of food fruits 
are bananas, dried figs and dates. 

Most persons like fresh fruit, but it does not agree 
with everyone. Cooked fruit can often be eaten 
when the raw fruit cannot, because the cooking 
softens the fruit and kills bacteria that may be 
present. Children should be given cooked fruit in 
preference to raw fruit. Neither green fruit nor over- 
ripe fruit should be eaten. 

Fruits are least expensive when purchased in season, 
that is, when they are being produced on the farms 
and in the gardens of the community. When fruits 
have to be shipped long distances they must be sold 
at higher prices. 

Fruit should be cleaned carefully before being 
used as food. Even when the skin of the fruit is 
to be removed, it should be washed carefully. One 
handles both the skin and the fruit at the time of 
peeling. Berries and similar fruits should be washed 
thoroughly before being eaten or cooked. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

FRUIT FOR BREAKFAST 

GRAPEFRUIT 

Wash grapefruit and cut crosswise into halves. Loosen 
the thick white skin by cutting each section of the fruit 
from the skin. Use scissors to cut the skin loose from 
the rind. Cut the core loose from the rind and remove 
white skin with core. Fill center of grapefruit with 
powdered sugar if desired. Serve on fruit-plate. 

Have you ever eaten grapefruit prepared in any other way ? 



FOODS AND COOKERY 39 

APPLE SAUCE 

1 medium-sized apple ^ tsp. cinnamon or nutmeg 

\ c. water (if desired) 

| to 1 tbsp. sugar 

Wash and pare the apple. Cut it into quarters and re- 
move the core. Place in saucepan, add the water, cover 
tightly. Boil gently until apples are tender when pierced 
with a fork. Add sugar and nutmeg or cinnamon. Cook 
until sugar is melted. 

Other recipes for using apples may be brought from 
home by members of the class. Are all the recipes good 
ones to use for breakfast ? 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. Name the fruits that can be used for breakfast. 

2. Which of these grow in your locality? 

3. What are the foodstuffs found in fruits? 

4. What is meant by purchasing "in season"? 

5. What fruits are "in season" at the present time? 

6. How much are apples per pound? How many pounds 
are in a peck and in a bushel of apples? 

7. How does the price per bushel compare with the price 
paid when apples are bought by the pound ? 

8. What is the price of grapefruit ? What does one serving 
cost? 

MILK 

Milk is one of our most important foods. When 
we drink milk we should remember that we are 
taking a real food and not merely something to take 
the place of water. When enough milk is used, some 
other food can be left out of the diet. Milk is a 
perfect food for infants or young animals and is a 
good food for grown persons. 

When the chemist divides milk into its parts he 
finds the following foodstuffs : protein, carbohy- 
drates, fat, mineral matter and water. 



40 FOODS AND COOKERY 

The protein in one glassful of milk is equal to the 
protein contained in one large egg or in one and 
one third ounces of beef. Therefore when we use 
enough milk in a meal we do not need meat. The 
milk may be used in custards, escalloped and creamed 
dishes, or it may be used to drink. 

When the milk stands, the fat separates and 
comes to the top. This fat is then called cream. 
The milk remaining when the cream is removed is 
skim milk. The milk without its cream removed is 
whole milk. 

The mineral matter in milk is very valuable because 
it is in a good form for the body to use. Milk 
also contains the vitamines which are so important. 

Every boy and girl should use a great deal of milk, 
— some say a pint a day for all children over six 
years old, and a quart a day for the child under six. 

Clean milk is the only safe milk. Dirty milk may 
contain disease germs that cause typhoid fever, 
tuberculosis, or other diseases. Clean milk comes 
from clean cows kept in clean barns. The milk 
must be handled by persons with clean hands and 
clean clothes, and it must be placed in clean pails, 
bottles, or pans. 

If milk is purchased from a store or dairy wagon 
it should be in bottles, tightly covered. The bottles 
must be kept in a cool place where there are no flies. 
If a bottle of milk is put in the refrigerator it must 
always be tightly covered. 

There are several kinds of milk that can be pur- 
chased. Milk that is heated to the boiling-point, 
212° F., and cooled before it is sold, is called steril- 
ized milk. The boiling changes the flavor but kills 
harmful bacteria that may have been in the milk. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 41 

Pasteurized milk is milk which has been heated and 
kept at a temperature of 140° to 145° F. for twenty 
to thirty minutes, and then cooled quickly. This 
process kills bacteria that may cause disease. Cer- 
tified milk is milk that is guaranteed by the producer 
to be especially clean and pure. 

At the grocer's we buy condensed or evaporated 
milk in tin cans. This is milk that has had most 
of the water taken out of it and afterwards has been 
canned. This is useful to take on camping trips 
or journeys where fresh milk cannot be obtained. 
Powdered milk may also be found in the stores. 
This is a dry powder and must have water added 
before it is used. 

Fortunate is the child who lives on a farm and can 
have all the milk desired. Milk, however, must be 
regarded as a very necessary food and should be used 
by every family, whether in town or country. It 
is poor economy to reduce the amount of milk pur- 
chased. Some other food could be better spared. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

MILK 

WHITE SAUCE 

White sauce is made by combining a liquid, a fat and 
a thickening agent. Cream sauces and gravies are ex- 
amples of white sauce. White sauce is of different thick- 
nesses, according to its use. The following are the general 
proportions for white sauce : 

No. 1 White Sauce or Thin White Sauce 
1 c. liquid 1 tbsp. fat 1 tbsp. flour 

Used for cream soups and certain sauces. 



42 FOODS AND COOKERY 

No. 2 White Sauce or Medium White Sauce 
1 c. liquid 1 tbsp. fat 2 tbsp. flour 

Used for vegetables, gravies and sauces. 

No. 8 White Sauce or Thick White Sauce 
1 c. liquid 2 tbsp. fat 3 tbsp. flour 

Used for thick sauces, creamed oysters. 

No. 4 White Sauce or Very Thick White Sauce 
1 c. liquid 3 tbsp. fat 4 tbsp. flour 

Used for croquettes. 

There are three ways of combining the ingredients in 
making white sauces : 

Method No. 1. Heat part of the milk in double-boiler ; 
mix the remaining milk with the flour, and add gradually 
to the heated milk, stirring thoroughly ; add the fat just 
before removing from the fire. Cook twenty to thirty 
minutes in the double-boiler, stirring occasionally. 

Method No. 2. Heat milk in double-boiler ; mix into 
a paste the fat and the flour ; add to the heated milk, 
stirring until no lumps are present ; cook twenty to thirty 
minutes. 

Method No. 3. This method is often used in making 
gravies. Heat the fat slowly ; add the flour, and stir 
until a smooth paste is formed ; add the milk, stirring 
constantly to prevent lumping. Cook six to ten minutes. 

CREAM TOAST 

1 tbsp. butter 1 c. milk or cream 

1 tbsp. flour \ tsp. salt 

4 slices bread 

Make white sauce from the first four ingredients. 
While it is cooking make the toast, being careful not to 



FOODS AND COOKERY 43 

burn the bread. Dip each piece in the white sauce, place 
in a warm dish and pour on the remaining white sauce. 
Serve in warmed dishes. 

FRENCH TOAST 

1 c. milk I tsp. salt 

1 egg 6 slices stale bread 

Beat the egg slightly, add salt and milk, dip each piece 
of bread in the mixture. In a hot frying-pan place some 
fat. When it is melted, place the bread in the frying- 
pan and brown on both sides. Serve with syrup. 

CARAMEL SYRUP 

Melt one half cup of sugar in a frying-pan and heat 
until it is a brown syrup ; add one half cup of boiling 
water ; boil until the syrup is as thick as desired. Serve 
with the French toast. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What is clean milk? 

2. Why is it necessary to use clean milk ? 

3. What is Pasteurized milk? sterilized milk? 

4. Can either of these be purchased in your neighborhood? 
Where? 

5. What is the price of milk per quart? What is the price 
of one pint of cream ? of one half pint ? 

6. Can skim milk be purchased from your dairy man? 
Compare the price of this with the price of whole milk. 

7. In what ways may skim milk be used? 

8. How should milk be cared for in the home ? 

9. What is condensed milk? 

10. Does your grocer sell condensed milk? What does it 
cost per can? How much does the can contain? 

11. Is milk a valuable food? Why? 

12. For what food may milk be substituted? 



44 FOODS AND COOKERY 

CEREALS 

Cereals are derived from the seeds or grain of 
certain cultivated grasses. The most commonly 
used are corn, oats, wheat, barley, rye, buckwheat 
and rice. From these are made many different 
kinds of flour, meal and breakfast foods. 

Cereals are very valuable as food because they con- 
tain all the foodstuffs. Carbohydrates are found in 
the largest amount. Carbohydrates in food are 
found mainly in three forms : (1) starch, (2) sugar 
and (3) cellulose. Starch and cellulose are the 
forms found in cereals. 

The grain is made up of cells, the walls of which 
are of cellulose, and inside is the starch. Cellu- 
lose is not easily digested and is of practically no 
value, but it is useful to the body by furnishing 
"bulk" which causes the food to pass through the 
digestive system in a better and easier way. 

Cereals contain, also, large amounts of protein and 
mineral matter; therefore they are useful both for 
growth and for producing heat and energy. 

When the chemist divides a cereal into its parts 
he finds 65 to 75 per cent of carbohydrates, 10 to 
12 per cent of protein, 2 to 8 per cent of fat, about 
2 per cent of mineral matter and 10 to 12 per cent 
of water. 

Cereals used for breakfast foods may be purchased 
at the stores in sealed packages, or in bulk by the 
pound. Those in packages are usually the cleaner 
but are more expensive. 

We can buy ready prepared breakfast foods, such 
as cornflakes, puffed cereals and shredded wheat, 
or we may purchase the kinds that must be cooked 



FOODS AND COOKERY 45 

before serving, such as rolled oats and cream of 
wheat. The prepared breakfast foods cost more per 
pound than those which must be cooked. 

Cereals do not keep well and it is not wise to buy 
them in large quantities, even though the price may 
be lower when bought in that way. 

Cereals are cooked for three reasons : (1) to soften 
the cellulose, (2) to cause the starch grains to swell 
and burst and (3) to make the taste better. In 
cooking cereals a tireless cooker may be used. 

When cereals are cooked on the stove, always use 
a double-boiler. This is to prevent burning. 

HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS 

Make a list of the cereals grown in this region. 
Which are the most common ? 

Make a list of the prepared cereals that can be 
purchased at the grocery. 

Make a list of the cereals to be cooked. 

What is the cost of rolled oats by the pound when 
sold in bulk? What is the cost per box for rolled 
oats? Read the label on the box to find what 
amount of oats the box contains. Compare the 
price of that in the box and that in bulk. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

BREAKFAST CEREALS 
CREAM OF WHEAT WITH DATES 

2 tbsp. cream of wheat I tsp. salt 

If c. water 4 to 6 dates 

Heat water to boiling-point, add salt, stir in cream of 
wheat gradually. Cook about thirty minutes in double- 



46 FOODS AND COOKERY 

boiler. When the cooking is about half done, add the 
dates, which have been cut into fine pieces. 

PREPARED CEREALS 

Place cereal on pan and heat in oven until crisp. Serve 
with fruit if desired. Milk or cream may be used with a 
cereal. Sometimes hot milk is poured over shredded 
wheat before serving. 

TOAST 

Cut slices of bread evenly and of even thickness. Toast 
in oven or on toaster until the slices are of an even brown 
on both sides, and until the bread is thoroughly dried and 
crisp. Toast may be served in this form and then it is 
called " dry toast." Butter may be spread on it and 
the toast placed in a hot oven until the butter is melted, 
when it is known as " buttered toast." " Cinnamon 
toast " is made by spreading toast with butter and 
sprinkling with sugar and cinnamon, mixed, using three 
parts of sugar to one of cinnamon. " Dipped toast " is 
made by quickly dipping toasted bread into hot salted 
water. 

Which kinds would be best to serve for breakfast? 

BREAD 

In any menu we usually like bread in some form. 
Bread is another way of serving cereals, because all 
the flours and meals from which bread is made are 
prepared from cereals. The cereal used most com- 
monly in making bread is wheat. The product 
made from wheat and used in bread is called flour. 
There are many different brands of wheat flour and 
these will make different kinds of bread. The flours 
are not alike because they are made from different 
kinds of wheat and by different processes. A great 
deal of our flour comes from the Northwestern 



FOODS AND COOKERY 47 

States and is made from wheat sown in the spring 
and called hard-wheat flour. Wheat grown in the 
Central States is usually sown in the fall and the 
flour made from it is called soft-wheat flour. Both 
can be used in bread-making. 

Flour that is to be used for bread-making should 
be creamy in color, rather gritty in feel, and if 
pressed in the hand should fall apart when released. 
Flour may be purchased by the barrel, by the sack, or 
by the pound. It is cheaper when purchased in 
quantity, if the housekeeper has a suitable place 
for storing a large amount. Flour must be kept in 
a clean dry place and in a well covered container. 

Whole-wheat flour and Graham flour are types of 
wheat flour used for bread-making; these contain 
bran (the outer covering of the wheat grain) and other 
parts of the grain not found in white flour. These 
are valuable in the diet on account of the mineral 
matter and vitamines they contain. 

The material in flour that is important in bread- 
making is the gluten, which is a form of protein 
that when mixed with water forms an elastic mass. 
It is the gluten that makes it possible to stretch and 
pull the dough without its breaking apart. 

Yeast is one of the important materials used when 
light bread is made from wheat flour. It is the yeast 
that makes the dough rise and become light. Yeast, 
as it is used in bread, is made up of a large number 
of tiny plants, each too small to be seen by the naked 
eye. Under a powerful microscope they appear as 
little cell-like plants. When the plants are put into 
bread dough they find food material and moisture 
in the flour and other ingredients, and begin to grow 
and produce more cells. During this growing pro- 



48 FOODS AND COOKERY 

cess a gas is formed which is called carbon dioxide. 
This gas stretches the gluten in the bread dough and 
causes the whole mass to rise. Alcohol, also, is 
produced during the growth of the yeast plant, but 
both the gas and the alcohol pass out of the bread 
during baking. 

The yeast plant, in order to grow properly, must 
have (1) food and (2) moisture, both found in the 
dough, and (3) warmth, obtained by keeping the 
dough in a warm place. The yeast plant is like all 




■ Equipment for Bread-making 

other plants in that it will be killed if it gets too hot. 
A cold temperature does not kill the plants, but they 
will not grow when cold. 

Yeast may be purchased at the store in dry yeast 
cakes or in the form of compressed yeast. In the dry 
yeast the plants are mixed with meal, then dried, 
and wrapped for sale. The compressed yeast cake 
contains growing plants with enough food and 
moisture to permit growth for a few days. It 
cannot be kept long, however, and usually is pur- 
chased fresh for each baking. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 49 

Liquid yeast is a third form in which yeast is kept, 
and is sometimes called " beer yeast " or " starter." 
It contains the active growing plants and, in a cool 
place, can be kept for several days. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
YEAST BREAD 

Bread is made in two ways : (1) by the " long process ", 
in which a sponge is used and this sponge is allowed to 
stand, usually overnight, before being made into dough, 
and (2) by the " short process ", in which no sponge is 
used, but the dough is made at first. The second is the 
more modern method, and is popular because it requires 
much less time for making bread than the " long process." 
" Short-process " bread is most easily made by using 
compressed yeast. 

RECIPE FOR ONE LOAF OF BREAD 

1 c. liquid (milk or water, or the two mixed) 
1 tsp. salt 1 tbsp. fat 

1 tbsp. sugar 3 c. flour (about) 

1 compressed yeast cake 

The large amount of yeast is used in order that the 
bread may be made and baked in two or three hours. 
At home, one cake of yeast would do for three or four 
loaves of bread. 

Place the salt, sugar and fat in a mixing-bowl. Scald 
the liquid and pour over the ingredients in the mixing- 
bowl. Let stand until lukewarm. While this is cooling, 
place the yeast in 2 tbsp. of lukewarm water to soften. 
Add this to the lukewarm mixture in the bowl. Stir 
thoroughly. Sift flour into the liquid mixture gradually, 
stirring thoroughly. As soon as it is possible to knead the 
dough without having it stick to the fingers, place it on a 
floured bread-board and knead until it is smooth in ap- 
pearance and elastic to touch. Clean out the mixing- 



50 FOODS AND COOKERY 

bowl, grease, place dough in bowl. Cover with a lid. 
Set mixing-bowl in a dishpan half full of lukewarm water ; 
put in a warm, but not hot, place. If bread is made in hot 
weather the mixing-bowl need not be placed in the water. 
Bread dough kept at 80 to 86° F. rises best. Use a ther- 
mometer to test the dough. Experienced bread-makers 
can tell by the " feel " of the dough whether it is warm 
enough. 

When the dough has doubled in size, knead again, add- 
ing no flour except what is needed on the board to keep 

the dough from sticking. 
Shape into a loaf and 
place in a well greased 
bread-pan. Grease the 
pan by using a piece of 
oil paper on which has 
been placed a little fat, 
or use a brush made for 
the purpose. Cover the 
pan and set where the 
proper temperature for 
rising may be maintained. 
When the loaf is doubled 
in size, place in an oven 
heated to 400° to 425° F. 
Gradually lower the tem- 
perature to 380° F. Use 

Bread-mixer ,, 

an oven thermometer. 
The loaves should be turned around in the oven once or 
twice during the first few minutes of baking, so that the 
shape of the loaf will be good. No brown crust should 
form on the bread until after the first ten or fifteen minutes. 
Bake one hour. 

Remove bread from pan and place it, uncovered, on a 
bread-rack to cool ; or place loaf against pan in such a 
way that no side touches a flat surface. 




FOODS AND COOKERY 51 

OTHER WORK WITH BREAD 

While bread is baking, score it, using the score card 
given in the next section. 

A lesson in kneading bread might be given, using one 
large portion of dough which may be prepared before the 
class assembles. 

If there is a bread-mixer in the equipment, examine 
it. Perhaps there will be dough set to rise in it before 
the class begins, so that the kneading may be done by the 
class. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What kinds of wheat flour are used for bread-making? 

2. State the necessary qualities of white flour that is good 
to use for bread-making. 

3. How is bread flour purchased? What is the price of 
one pound of flour in bulk? of a 25-lb. sack? of a 50-lb. sack? 

4. What is gluten? How is it valuable in bread-making? 

5. What is yeast? 

6. In what forms do we have yeast for bread-making? 

7. How does yeast make dough rise? 

8. Would yeast grow if placed in water alone? Why? 

9. What effect does a hot temperature have on yeast? a 
cold temperature ? When does this have a great deal to do with 
bread-making ? 

10. From what section of the country does a great deal of 
flour come ? 

BREAD {Continued) 

Bread should be thoroughly baked, because during 
the baking process the yeast plant and other bacteria 
present are killed, and other changes also take place 
that make the bread more easily digested. It is 
better to bake one loaf in a pan instead of two or 
three or four loaves together in a larger pan. 

Bread that is well baked is an even golden brown 
all over ; and when the bread is twenty-four hours old 
the crumb from the middle of the loaf will crumble 



52 FOODS AND COOKERY 

and not form " dough-balls " when rubbed between 
the fingers. Bread that has just been baked is hard 
to digest because it forms a pasty mass in the mouth 
and is not chewed so thoroughly as it should be. 
It is better for use after standing twenty-four hours. 
Bread should be kept in a metal container rather 
than in a wooden or earthenware jar. The con- 
tainer should be washed and scalded often with boil- 
ing water, and may be placed in the sun to dry 
thoroughly. Scalding water and sunshine will kill 
any bacteria that may be in the box which would 




Good Loaves of Bread 

cause the bread to spoil. Bread should not be 
wrapped in a cloth while warm because this is apt 
to spoil the flavor. 

A great deal of baker's bread is now used, and in 
almost any locality good bread of this kind can be 
obtained. The large modern bakeries make good 
clean bread. When we buy bread from the store it 
is well to know whence it comes and to find out 
if it has been properly made and cared for. A 
great deal of bread is wrapped in paper before it 
leaves the bakery and this is usually the cleanest 
bread that can be bought, as all dust, flies, dirty 
hands and dirty clothes have been kept away from it. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 53 

A slice of baker's bread usually does not contain 
so much food value as a slice of home-made bread 
of the same size, because it does not weigh so much 
and therefore contains less flour and probably less 
milk and fat. 

A girl should know how to make good bread, even 
though the bread used in her home is bought from 
the baker. The United States government considers 
bread -making such an important thing for a girl to 
know that the Department of Agriculture has 
organized bread clubs in all sections of the country. 
The girls who belong to these clubs learn to make 
bread by doing it many times and then entering a 
loaf to be judged in a contest with other girls. To 
decide just how well she has learned to do the work, 
the judge uses the Standard Score Card for Bread 
that has been adopted by the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

SCORE CARD 1 

1. General appearance : 

Shape 5 

Smoothness of crust 5 

Depth and evenness of color 5 

2. Lightness 10 

3. Crust: 

Thickness 5 

Quality (crispness and elasticity) 5 

Color 10 

4. Crumb : 

Texture (size and uniformity of cells', thickness of cell 



walls) 15 

Elasticity (softness and springiness) 1 5 

5. Flavor (taste and odor) _25 

Total 100 

1 From Farmers' Bulletin 807, "Bread and Bread-making in 
the Home", U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



54 FOODS AND COOKERY 

One of the favorite ways of preparing light bread 
for breakfast is to make it into toast. Toast is 
easier to digest than white bread, when it is properly 
made, because there are certain changes that take 
place in the starch during the toasting. In making 
dry toast, the slice should be dried out and evenly 
browned on both sides. 




Bread-pans, Bread-stick Pans and Baking-sheet 

All clean scraps of bread and toast should be 
dried and made into crumbs; these can be used in 
many ways. 

Waffles, batter cakes, muffins, popovers and 
biscuits may be substituted for yeast bread in the 
breakfast plan. 

In some parts of the United States hot breads are 
used at every meal, and most of the breads used 
are quick breads. Quick breads are made to rise 
in a different way from yeast breads. We will 
study in another lesson the methods used. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
ROLLS AND BATTER CAKES 

Experiment : Mix 1 tbsp. flour, 1 tbsp. sugar, f cake com- 
pressed yeast, 5 tbsp. cold water to a smooth paste. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 55 

Divide into three parts, place each in a tumbler and 
label 1, 2 and 3. 

(a) Fill No. 1 with boiling water, place glass in bowl 
of boiling water, let stand in a hot place fifteen minutes. 

(6) Half fill No. 2 with lukewarm water, let it stand 
fifteen minutes in a temperature of 80° to 90° F. 

(c) Fill No. 3 with cold water, place it in a bowl of 
cracked ice, or outside the window if the weather is 
freezing, for fifteen minutes. 

Observe the foam on top of each glass — the more 
foam the more active is the yeast. 

Which has produced the most foam? What causes 
the foam? What does this teach about the tempera- 
ture for bread-making ? 

(d) Place I yeast cake in 2 tbsp. water. Let it stand 
fifteen minutes. Has any foam come to the top ? Why ? 

(e) Let No. 3 stand in a temperature of 80° to 90° F. 
for one hour. Has any change occurred in contents of 
glass ? Why ? 

(/) Remove No. 1 from bowl of boiling water, let it 
stand in a lukewarm place for one hour. Has any 
change occurred in contents of glass? Why? 

PARKER HOUSE ROLLS 

1 c. scalded milk \ tsp. salt 

1 tbsp. butter \ yeast cake dissolved in \ c. 

1 tbsp. sugar lukewarm water 

3 c. flour (about) 

Pour scalded milk over salt, butter and sugar. When 
mixture is lukewarm, add yeast and one half the flour. 
Beat until smooth ; cover, and let rise. Stir in flour until 
dough is stiff enough to handle. Knead until smooth 
and elastic. Let rise again, then turn out on bread-board, 
roll and pat the mixture until it is one third inch in thick- 
ness. Cut with biscuit-cutter. With the handle of a 
knife which has been dipped in flour, make a crease through 
the middle of each piece. Brush over each piece with 



56 FOODS AND COOKERY 

butter ; fold, and press edges together. Place in greased 
pan, one inch apart, cover and let rise. Bake fifteen to 
twenty minutes in a hot oven. 

The long process for bread-making is used in making 
these rolls. In what other ways may bread dough be 
used? Perhaps the class can bring some good recipes 
from home. 

BATTER CAKES 

f c. milk I tsp. salt 

1 egg 2 tsp. baking powder 

1 tbsp. melted butter 1 c. flour (about) 

Add the well beaten egg to the milk. Mix together the 
dry ingredients. Sift slowly into egg and milk mixture, 
beating thoroughly. Drop by spoonfuls on a hot greased 
griddle. Cook on one side until top is puffed and full of 
bubbles and edges are crisp. Turn with a spatula or 
pancake-turner, and cook on the other side. Serve im- 
mediately on warmed plates. 

Batter cakes are also known as griddlecakes. 

Of what material are griddles made? What do they 
cost ? How should they be cared for ? 

Perhaps some of the class will make waffles instead of 
the batter cakes. Some one will have a good recipe, or 
one may be found in the cook book. 

EGGS 

Hen, duck, goose, turkey and guinea-fowl eggs 
are used for food in this country. The hen's egg is 
the one most commonly found in the market. Per- 
haps the members of this class who live in the 
country have used some other kinds of eggs. 

The egg has in it food for the baby chick and 
for that reason contains all the foodstuffs required 
for its growth. When the chemist divides the egg 



FOODS AND COOKERY 57 

into its parts he finds about 12 per cent of protein, 
about 9 per cent of fat and, in addition, water and 
mineral matter. Eggs may replace meat in the diet 
because they contain a large amount of protein, 
which is easily digested and used in the body. 

When buying eggs in the market it is often difficult 
to get them fresh. A fresh egg need not be newly 
laid, but must be in good condition for human food, 
although it may be several days old. Eggs that 
have been treated or stored are not fresh eggs. 

Eggs cannot be kept in good condition for a long 
period unless some method of preserving them is 
used. The shell of the egg is porous and allows 
bacteria from the air to pass through, thereby causing 
the egg to spoil. The home methods found to be 
best for preserving eggs are by the use of water glass 
or lime water. These materials may be purchased 
from the druggist and should be combined with clean 
boiled water. After the eggs are placed in the 
liquid, the container should be kept in a cool place. 
Eggs that are laid in April, May, or June are the 
best for preservation, and are also lower in price 
than at any other season. Large numbers of eggs 
are put in cold storage every year and these are the 
eggs that are sold during the winter as "storage" or 
"packed" eggs. 

Eggs are usually sold by the dozen, but as they 
vary greatly in size and weight, it would be better 
if they were sold by weight. 

Eggs that are " soft-cooked ", at a temperature 
below that of boiling water, are most easily and 
quickly digested. " Hard-cooked" or hard-boiled 
eggs are thoroughly digested when not eaten hur- 
riedly. 



58 FOODS AND COOKERY 

Eggs are very good for children, and are among the 
first foods added to the milk diet of the small child. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

EGGS FOR BREAKFAST 

SOFT-COOKED EGGS 

Never cook an egg at boiling temperature, as this makes 
the white tough. Place one egg in a pint of boiling water 
in the top part of the double-boiler. Place boiling water 
in lower part of double-boiler. Remove from fire and set 
in warm place. Cook for the length of time desired — 
five minutes for a soft-cooked egg, seven to ten for a 
medium-cooked egg. If the eggs have come out of the 
refrigerator and are very cold it will require a longer time 
to cook them. 

How shall soft-cooked eggs be served for breakfast? 

HARD-COOKED EGGS 

Place one egg in a pint of boiling water, remove from fire, 
cover tightly ; set in a warm place forty-five minutes to 
one hour. Using a double-boiler for this is a good method. 

Place one egg in a pint of boiling water. Boil for 
twenty minutes. 

When the two eggs are done, examine the whites. 
Which is the more tender? 

What are some of the ways in which to use hard-cooked 
eggs? 

POACHED EGGS 

Have a frying-pan two thirds full of water at simmering 
point, to which salt has been added. In this may be 
placed muffin rings if they are available. Break each egg 
separately, pour carefully into muffin ring or water. Do 
not allow the water to boil. When the egg-white is firm, 
remove eggs from water, using a pancake-turner. Place 
each egg on a piece of buttered toast arranged on a warmed 
platter. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



59 



SCRAMBLED EGGS 



3 eggs 
\ c. milk 



1 tbsp. butter 



tV *sp. pepper 
| tsp. salt 



Beat eggs slightly, add milk and seasoning. Melt 
butter in top of double-boiler, turn in mixture and cook 
very slowly, stirring often until white is set. Serve on 
warmed platter. Bits of chopped ham or other meat may 
be added if desired. 



PUFFY OMELET 



4 eggs 

2 tbsp. milk 



1 tsp. salt 
Pepper 



Separate the yolks and whites of the eggs. Beat the 
yolks of the eggs until " creamy " and add the milk, salt 
and pepper. Beat the whites until they are stiff. Pour 
the yolks over the 
whites and fold to- 
gether carefully. Place 
in a frying-pan one 
tablespoon of butter. 
When it is melted pour 
in the omelet. Cook 
on top of the stove 
until the omelet is 
slightly browned on 
the bottom. Set in 
oven and bake slowly 
until omelet is " set " 
and browned on 
the top. Have ready 
a warmed platter. 
Loosen the omelet 
from the pan with a spatula. Slide it half-way from the 
pan to the platter and then fold the half of the omelet in 
the frying-pan over the half on the platter. Serve. 

Grated cheese, minced ham, or chopped parsley may 




Folding the Omelet as It Comes from 
the Pan 



60 FOODS AND COOKERY 

be sprinkled over the omelet before it is folded, in order 
to vary the flavor. 

An omelet-pan may be used in place of the regular 
frying-pan in making the omelet. 

BEVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What kinds of eggs are used for food in this country? 

2. What foodstuffs does an egg contain ? 

3. What food may eggs replace in a meal ? Why? 

4. What other food have we studied which is similar in food 
value to eggs? 

5. What is a fresh egg? a packed egg? 

6. Have you ever seen eggs being packed at home for winter 
use? How was it done? 

7. What is the price per dozen for packed eggs? for fresh 



8. Weigh three small eggs, then weigh three large eggs. 
What is the difference in weight per dozen? What does this 
prove about purchasing eggs by count or by weight ? 

THE DINING ROOM 

The dining room should be a light, cheerful room, 
situated so that the sunlight reaches it at some time 
every day, preferably in the morning. This room 
should be large enough to permit easy passing behind 
the chairs when persons are seated around the table. 

The walls should be finished in light colors rather 
than dark, which tend to make the room appear 
gloomy. The window curtains should be of a kind 
easily laundered, since draperies in a dining room are 
apt to hold dirt and odors and need frequent cleaning. 

The floor is best made of hard wood, as a rug may 
then be used instead of a carpet. A dining-room 
floor would be more sanitary if no covering were used, 
but the noise made by using a bare floor is annoying 
to many persons. 



FOODS AND COOKERY Gl 

The furniture should be plain in design. Wood or 
cane-seated chairs are perhaps better to use than 
upholstered, because they are easier to keep clean. 
A dining-table with a top having a waxed finish is 
much better than one highly varnished. • The top of 
the sideboard and serving-table should not be crowded 
with dishes of various kinds. A dining room is more 
pleasing with few pictures, or none at all, and with 
little bric-a-brac or few dishes used as decoration. 

When buying a "set" of dishes it is best to select a 
style with simple decoration or without decoration. 
Large conspicuous designs and bright colors become 
tiresome when the dishes are used often. A good 
quality of china with no decoration is a wise choice 
for a "set ", because any type of decorated dish looks 
well with it. 

Silver knives and forks should be of the same 
pattern, but the spoons may be of different design. 
Silver never looks well unless it is kept polished. 

White linen tablecloths and napkins are better to 
buy than cotton, because linen wears longer and 
launders much better than cotton. Luncheon sets 
of various types may be used instead of a tablecloth, 
and are much easier to launder. 



HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS 

Collect pictures of dining-room furniture ; of the 
interior of dining rooms. Bring them to class for 
discussion. Perhaps, if there is a furniture dealer 
in the community, you or the teacher can get furni- 
ture catalogues that will be good to study. 

Which types of chairs are best for the dining room ? 
Why ? Do the chairs in the pictures seem too heavy 



62 FOODS AND COOKERY 

to move about easily? Are they well braced? 
Observe whether they would be hard to dust. 

What types of tables are best for the dining room ? 
Why? 

Which type of sideboard is best ? 

For what purpose is a side-table used? What is 
a buffet ? 

See if you can find samples of the kind of cur- 
tain material you think would be good for a dining 
room. 

If your teacher has a sample-book of wall paper, 
find a sample of the colors you would like to have 
on the walls of your dining room. 

What kind of floor-covering would you like? 

You may like to mount on sheets of paper pictures 
of the furniture you would select to use in your 
dining room; if you have a sample of curtain 
material, rug and wall paper that you like, you can 
mount these. Then make a floor-plan of your room, 
showing the size of the room, the windows, the 
doors, and where the china closet is placed. Arrange 
the furniture in the room. On another sheet make 
a list of the prices of all the furnishings in the dining 
room. What is the total cost of furnishing? Tie 
these sheets together and make a cover for them. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

MEAT DISHES FOR BREAKFAST 

BROILED BACON 

Place in a hot frying-pan thin slices of bacon from 
which the rind has been removed. Turn several times 
during the cooking. When the bacon is crisp, not burned, 
drain from the fat carefully and serve on a warmed 
platter. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 63 

Bacon may be purchased by the piece, sliced in bulk, or 
sliced and packed in sealed containers. In which form is 
bacon the cheapest by the pound ? Why ? 

CREAMED DRIED BEEF 

Place two tablespoons of fat in a small frying-pan ; when 
it is melted, add about three slices of dried beef torn in 
pieces. Stir about three minutes, add one cup of milk. 
Mix thoroughly one tablespoon of flour with two table- 
spoons of milk; add slowly to the scalding hot milk. 
Stir to prevent lumping. Cook slowly five to ten minutes. 
Serve on toast arranged on a warmed platter. 

In making this white sauce, why is the flour mixed with 
milk instead of with fat ? 

How is dried beef made? Perhaps the butcher will 
tell you. What does it cost per pound? 

What are some other meat dishes that would be good 
for breakfast ? If you have time, try one of these. 

TABLE MANNERS 

No matter how educated or pleasing in character 
one may be, the impression made upon others is not 
good if one's manners are poor. 

Certain rules for table behavior or manners have 
been adopted because they make the eating of the 
meal easier and more graceful, and the serving of it 
more convenient. 

The following are a few rules that should be 
observed always when at the dining-table : 

1. Never go to the table unless hands and face 
are clean and the hair is in order. 

2. Stand behind your chair until the hostess takes 
her seat. 

3. The napkin should be laid across the lap with- 
out being entirely opened out. Never stick the 



64 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



corner inside the collar. If the napkin is to be 
used again, fold it neatly before leaving the table. 

4. The knife should be held in the right hand and 
the fork in the left when they are used at the same 
time. Hold the knife and fork so that the end of the 
handle touches the palm of the hand. The point of 
the index-finger is on the top of the handle of the fork 
at the lower end, but not on the tines. The knife 
must be laid on the plate when not in use. Both 
knife and fork should be placed side by side on the 

plate when one has 
finished using them 
at the end of a 
course. The fork, 
when being used to 
carry food to the 
mouth, may be held 
in either hand, and 
may be held in much 
the same position 
as when used with 
the knife, or like a 
spoon. 

5. The spoon should be held in the right hand, and 
such food as soup, tea, or coffee should be taken 
from the side of the spoon. A spoon used for stirring 
tea or coffee should be laid on the saucer after use 
and before drinking from the cup. 

6. Always sit erect in the chair while eating. 
Keep the arms and elbows off the table. 

7. Never eat hurriedly. 

8. Do not talk when the mouth is full of food. 

9. Ask politely for dishes to be passed, rather than 
reach across the table. 




Proper Way to Hold Knife and Fork 



FOODS AND COOKERY 65 

10. Never complain about the food. If it is not 
the kind desired, it need not be eaten. 

11. If it is necessary to leave the table before the 
others are ready, ask to be excused by the hostess. 

12. Do not talk about disagreeable things during 
the meal. 

HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS 

The following breakfast will be served during the 
next laboratory period : 

Orange Toast 

Oatmeal Cocoa 

Make a list of the dishes and silver that will be 
needed in setting the table and serving the meal. 

Decide how much of each food will be required 
for serving the number who are to eat the meal. 

Decide the order of work for preparation of the 
meal, — that is, which food must be put on to cook 
first, which second, etc. 

What will the food cost for each person? 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

SERVE A BREAKFAST 

Setting the table : Place the table-pad or silence-cloth on 
the table. Over this lay the cloth, arranged straight 
and smooth. If a center doily is used, place this in 
the middle of the table. Doilies and table-runners may 
be used, instead of a tablecloth, for breakfast, luncheon 
and supper. Asbestos pads should be placed under all 
hot dishes when doilies or runners are used on a polished 
table. 

A cover means the space with the silver, glass and 
china allowed for each person. Enough space must be 



66 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



allowed so that no one is crowded. Twenty-two inches 
is the least space that should be used. 

At the center of each cover place a plate, the kind de- 
pending on the meal that is served. For breakfast it 
will probably be the fruit-plate. At the right of the 
plate place the knife, with its sharp edge toward the 
plate and the end of the handle about one inch from 
the edge of the table. Next to the knife place the 
spoons, with the bowls up. 

At the left of the plate, place the fork or forks with 
the tines up and the end of the handle about one inch 




Arrangement of "Cover" for Dinner 

1, Napkin; 2, Salad Fork; 3, Dinner Fork; 4, Dinner Plate; 
5, Dinner Knife ; 6, Soup Spoon ; 7, Dessert or Sauce Spoon ; 
8, Coffee Spoon ; 9, Butter Plate ; 10, Water Glass. 

from the edge of the table. To the left of the fork lay 
the neatly folded napkin. 

At the end of the knife, place the glass, right side up. 
At the end of the forks, place the bread-and-butter plate. 

When flowers are used they should be low, or not high 
enough to obstruct the view across the table. 

The dishes from which foods are to be served should 
be placed conveniently for those doing the serving. 
Place the serving-spoons and the carving-knife and fork 
where they will be needed, but do not place them in the 
dishes before beginning the serving. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 67 

Cups and saucers, sugar-bowl and cream-pitcher, 
should be placed in front of the hostess, with the coffee- 
pot or teapot at her right. 

The table should never look crowded with dishes. 
When the hostess is serving the meal, a tea-cart at 
her side may be used for holding dessert-dish, bread- 
plate, water-pitcher, etc. 

Place the chairs so that the edge of the seat just 
touches the tablecloth, but does not keep it from hang- 
ing straight. 

STYLE OF SERVING 

There are three methods of serving meals : 

1. English, used in ordinary family service. 
Foods are served at the table by the host and hostess 
and other members of the family. The served 
dishes may be passed by the household helper, or 
passed from one person to another at the table. The 
hostess usually serves the soup, salad and dessert ; 
the host serves the meat and vegetables. This is 
the style of serving used in most American homes. 

2. Russian, used for very formal meals. Each 
plate is served in the kitchen and placed in front of 
the guest by the household helpers ; or the empty 
plates are placed before each guest and the serving- 
dishes are passed to each person by the household 
helper. No serving-dishes are placed on the table. 
This form of service is not practical for the ordinary 
family, because it requires more work than the 
English service. 

3. Combination, used for informal meals. This is 
a combination of the two other styles. For example, 
the soup or salad is served in the kitchen, and the 
meat and vegetables are served at the table. 



G8 FOODS AND COOKERY 

Every hostess may follow her own ideas about serv- 
ing, as far as details are concerned, but a few general 
rules should be followed. 

1 . Serving-dishes from which the guest is to serve 
himself must be passed to the left of the guest. 
Why? 

2. Plates that have been served are placed in front 
of the guest from the right side. Why? 




Serving-dish Passed to the Left 

3. Used plates are removed from the right side 
when it is possible to do it conveniently. 

4. When removing dishes between the courses, 
use the following order : remove the used dishes, 
then the dishes containing food, next the clean 
dishes and silver that will not be needed further, 
then the crumbs from the cloth (if necessary). A 
table never looks attractive when dirty dishes from 



FOODS AND COOKERY 69 

one course remain during the next course, and even 
at the most informal meals it is better to remove 
dishes between courses. This work may be done 
by the daughter. When the family is very small, 
sometimes the dirty dishes are placed on a side-table 
or tea-cart, from which the dessert is taken, thereby 
saving the housekeeper steps in serving. 

5. In removing dishes from the table, when 
serving an informal meal, they may be placed on 
a hand-tray for carrying to the kitchen. Never 
"stack" dishes at the table or for removing from 
the table. 

Set the table for breakfast. Practice serving. 

If no dining-room furniture is available, the supply- 
table may be used. Perhaps dishes to use in setting the 
table may be borrowed until the school can get such equip- 
ment. If no other way is possible, let every member of 
the class arrange a cover at the laboratory desk, using 
laboratory dishes. This is never a desirable plan, how- 
ever, because the equipment does not supply the best 
type of dishes nor the proper kind. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
SERVE A BREAKFAST 

Suggested Menu : Orange Toast 

Oatmeal Cocoa 

Discuss order of work. 

Discuss equipment needed. 

Discuss china and silver needed. 

Would this type of breakfast suit every family? Why? 

Review recipes. 

Cook and serve meal. 

Several lessons might be given on serving breakfasts. 



70 FOODS AND COOKERY 

THE PLAN FOR SUPPER OR LUNCHEON 

In some families the meal served at noon is called 
luncheon and is followed by dinner in the evening ; 
in others, dinner is the meal served at noon, fol- 
lowed by supper in the evening. Luncheon and 
supper are simpler meals than dinner. 

The plan varies greatly under different conditions, 
but the usual types of food served are meat or meat- 
substitute dishes, salads, vegetables, bread in some 
form and perhaps a simple dessert or cake. " Quick 
breads" are often used for luncheon or supper. 

Many consider a cream soup, a vegetable salad, 
bread, stewed fruit and cookies a good combination 
for such a meal, while other families prefer a meat 
dish, a hot vegetable, and bread ; still others may 
consider bread and milk a satisfactory menu. No 
family needs, in one meal, foods of all the types sug- 
gested. 

Luncheon or supper is a meal for which it is con- 
venient to use the " left-overs " in various ways. Bits 
of meat may be combined with other foods to make 
attractive dishes. Small portions of vegetables may 
be made into salads or soups, or combined with meat. 
Sometimes a salad is made of left-over fruit, and used 
at the end of the meal in place of a dessert. 

Some housekeepers are very wasteful in throwing 
into the garbage-can small bits of clean food that 
may be left from a meal. Often persons object to 
" left-overs", but this is usually the case when the 
housekeeper has not learned how to make them into 
dishes which are well flavored and pleasing in ap- 
pearance. 

When bits of meat are left from a meal they should 



FOODS AND COOKERY 71 

be put in a covered container and placed in the ice- 
box or some other cool place. Vegetables with a 
strong flavor should be covered if put in the ice- 
box. All " left-over" food should be used promptly 
and not left to spoil. 

The cost of food should be considered, and if any- 
thing can be saved by careful watching and planning 
it is a part of the housekeeper's business to do this. 

There are several ways of reducing the amount of 
money to be spent for food : (1) buy the foods that 
are in season ; (2) buy those which contain the great- 
est food value, these are not always the highest 
priced ; (3) buy in quantity any foods that can be 
properly stored ; (4) prepare and cook carefully, so 
that nothing shall be wasted ; (5) save every part 
of the food that is fit for use. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

CREAM SOUPS 

CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP 

Make one cup of No. 1 White Sauce. Strain cooked 
tomatoes through a wire sieve, using one half cup of juice. 
Place tomato- juice in saucepan, heat, add one sixteenth 
teaspoon soda. Add the heated tomato-juice to the white 
sauce. Re-heat and serve in warmed soup-plates. 

Try mixing one tablespoon tomato-juice and one table- 
spoon of milk, and see what happens. The soda prevents 
this action, which is the curdling of the milk. 

CREAM OF CORN SOUP 

\ c. stewed or canned corn 1 tsp. flour 

1 c. milk 1 tbsp. butter 

Make a white sauce of the milk, butter and flour. Less 
flour is needed for thickening, because the corn will help 
thicken the soup. 



72 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



Heat the corn and press through the vegetable-ricer. 
Add corn to the white sauce. Re-heat. If desired, a 
spoonful of whipped cream may be placed in each soup- 
plate and the soup poured over it. 

TO SERVE WITH SOUPS 

Soup-sticks. Butter slices of bread. Cut into strips. 
Brown them slowly in the oven. 

CroHtons. Cut but- 
tered slices of bread into 
cubes. Brown in oven. 

Wafers. Heat salted 
wafers in oven until 
crisp. 

Parsley. Chopped 
parsley is sometimes 
sprinkled over the top 
of cream soups as a 
garnish. 

Celery. Crisp celery 
is always good to serve 
with soups. 

If possible, bring from 
home other recipes for 
cream soups. 




Correct Method of Holding Soup or 
Bouillon Spoon 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What are the foods usually served for luncheon or supper? 
Should all of these be served in the same meal? 

2. What are "left-overs"? How may they be used? 

3. How should " left-overs" be cared for? 

4. Why do some persons object to "left-overs"? 

5. How may the housekeeper reduce the amount of money 
spent for food ? 

6. Name some foods that are "out of season" at the present 
time. Why are they expensive? 

7. State ways in which food is wasted in cooking. 

8. When should soda be added to tomato soup? Why? 

9. Are cream soups of much food value? Why? 



FOODS AND COOKERY 73 

10. Name some foods that should not be served when cream 
soups are used in the meal plan. Explain. 

11. Make several supper or luncheon plans. 

MEAT SUBSTITUTES 

Such foods as cheese, milk, poultry, nuts, dried 
peas, beans, lentils, cowpeas and soy beans are some- 
times used in the diet in the place of meat, and are 
commonly called meat substitutes. 

In the United States, people eat more meat per 
person than in any other country, and more than is 
necessary. This is because the flavor of meat is very 
much liked, because meat is easily cooked, and be- 
cause it is popularly believed to be necessary for the 
best muscular work. It has been found, however, 
that meat may be replaced, for a part of the time at 
least, by other foods that contain a large amount of 
protein, without injury to the body and without loss 
in muscular strength. If meat is high in price it 
is well to remember this fact when planning meals. 

Cheese is a product made from milk. When 
divided into its parts by the chemist, cheese is found 
to contain about one third water, one third fat and 
one third protein. Cheese is usually divided into two 
classes : (1) hard cheese, such as American Cheddar 
cheese, Edam and Roquefort, and (2) soft cheese, 
such as Neufchatel, Camembert and cottage cheese. 

The cheese most commonly found in the market is 
American Cheddar cheese, sometimes called " Ameri- 
can cheese" or "New York cream cheese." The 
States making the most cheese are New York and 
Wisconsin. Much of our cheese comes from foreign 
countries, as for example, Edam cheese from Hol- 
land, and Neufchatel from France. 



74 FOODS AND COOKERY 

Cottage cheese is often made at home when there 
is an extra supply of milk; or skim milk may be 
used. 

American cheese is usually purchased by the pound. 
A large family may find, however, that purchasing a 
whole cheese is a better plan, as the cost will be less. 
Cheese that is to be kept for several days after it has 
been cut should be placed on a plate and left un- 
covered in a dry clean place, or it may be covered 
with a cloth. 

Some persons consider cheese hard to digest, and 
this may be so when it is eaten too hurriedly, or eaten 
after a meal at which enough food has already been 
eaten. When ground or grated cheese is combined 
with other foods, it is well digested by most persons. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
CHEESE 

If there are several kinds of cheese sold in the local 
market it would be interesting to have a sample of each 
type in the laboratory for examination. Observe the 
texture and flavor. What is the price of each kind ? 

CHEESE SOUFFLE 

\ c. No. 4 White Sauce 3 eggs 

\ c. grated cheese Few grains cayenne 

Add the cheese and cayenne to the hot white sauce. 
Beat the yolks of the eggs until they are thick and lemon 
colored ; pour slowly over these the white sauce. Mix 
carefully. Let stand until cool. Beat the whites of 
the eggs very stiff. When white-sauce mixture is cool, 
fold in the stiffly beaten egg-whites. Turn into a buttered 
baking-dish, set the dish in a pan of warm water and bake 
in a moderate oven until firm. Serve at once. The 
baking-dish may be placed in a holder made for the purpose, 



FOODS AND COOKERY 75 

or it may be wrapped with a napkin before being placed 
on the table. 

CHEESE STRATA 

In the bottom of a buttered baking-dish place thin 
slices of bread, over this pour hot No. 3 White Sauce, on 
this a layer of grated cheese, then layers of bread, of white 
sauce, and more cheese, until the dish is filled. Cover the 
top with buttered bread crumbs. Bake in a slow oven 
about thirty minutes. Serve in baking-dish. 









WELSH 


RAREBIT 


1 

4: 


lb. 


grated cheese 




1 egg 


1 

4 


C. ' 


cream or milk 




2 tsp. butter 


1 
"2 


tsp 


>. mustard 




Few grains cayenne 


1 
2 


tsr 


>. salt 




Toast 



Place the cheese, mixed with the cream or milk, in top 
part of double-boiler and heat until the cheese is melted. 
Then add the beaten egg, to which the mustard, salt and 
cayenne have been added ; then add the butter. Cook 
until it thickens, stirring constantly. Pour over toast. 
Welsh rarebit is often made in the chafing-dish. 

BREAD CRUMBS 

All crusts and pieces of bread should be saved for bread 
crumbs. Dry them in a slow oven. Put through a food- 
grinder, or crush by placing on a bread-board and using a 
rolling-pin. Store the crumbs in open jars, never in 
tightly closed containers. If the crumbs are to be kept 
for several weeks or months, a cloth should be tied over 
the top of the container. 

Buttered bread crumbs, to be used on the top of escal- 
loped dishes, are prepared as follows : 

1 c. bread crumbs 2 tbsp. butter 

Salt and pepper, if desired 

Melt the butter in a frying-pan. Add the crumbs with 
which the seasonings have been mixed. Stir until the 
butter is thoroughly mixed with the crumbs. 



76 FOODS AND COOKERY 

Other cheese dishes may be made if desired. 

The class may be divided into groups and each group 
make one recipe, the others copying the recipe. When 
family-size recipes are used, perhaps some of the products 
may be sold, either to individuals or in the lunch-room if 
there is one. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. Name the meat substitutes. 

2. Why are they called meat substitutes? 

3. From what is cheese made ? 

4. What does the chemist find that cheese contains? 

5. Into what two classes is cheese divided ? 

6. Name some examples of each class. 

7. Which is the most commonly used cheese ? 

8. How is cottage cheese made ? 

9. Find out, if you can, how American Cheddar cheese is 
made. 

10. How is cheese kept in the grocery? 

11. What is the price per pound of American Cheddar cheese? 

12. How should cheese be kept in the home? 

13. Make a luncheon or supper plan in which each of the 
cheese dishes made in the laboratory might be served. 

MEAT SUBSTITUTES (Continued) 

NUTS 

Nuts in general contain a large amount of fat and 
protein and may sometimes be substituted for meat 
in the diet. They may be used in their natural form, 
or they may be ground and combined with other foods. 

Peanuts are often used for making "peanut 
butter", which is a very valuable food. 

English walnuts, almonds and peanuts are the 
varieties of nuts most used. These are cultivated 
nuts, grown in the Southern States and California. 
Black walnuts, hazel nuts, hickory nuts, pecans and 
chestnuts grow wild in some parts of the United States. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 77 

Nuts should not be eaten at the end of a meal when 
one has already taken the food needed. Nuts may 
be hard to digest when eaten at this time, or when 
they are not chewed thoroughly. 

DRIED LEGUMES 

Peas, beans, lentils, soy beans and cowpeas belong 
to the class of vegetable foods called legumes. They 
contain a large amount of protein, fat, carbohydrate 
and mineral matter. 

Dried beans, peas and lentils are foods used es- 
pecially in winter. When serving them it is not 
necessary to use meat at the same meal. Cowpeas 
and soy beans, while not so common, are used in the 
same way as beans, peas and lentils. 

Legumes may be baked, boiled or combined in 
some way with other foods. Dried legumes require 
long periods for cooking. A fireless cooker is very 
useful when cooking legumes, or the pressure-cooker 
can be used and the time required much shortened. 

Dried legumes must be thoroughly cooked to make 
them good for food, since the cellulose in them is 
tough. They are often soaked in water for several 
hours before cooking. 

Dried legumes are usually purchased by the pound. 
Buying in quantity makes the cost less. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
DRIED LEGUMES 

Examine samples of beans, dried peas, split peas, lentils, 
soy beans and cowpeas. Compare the price by the pound. 
Which of these may be purchased at groceries in the 
neighborhood? Try the seed-store for cowpeas and soy 
beans. 



78 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



BAKED BEANS 

1 qt. white beans 1 tsp. mustard 

1 tsp. soda \ c. molasses 

\ lb. salt pork Salt, if needed 

1 small onion, if desired 

Cayenne, if desired 

Pick over, wash and soak beans in cold water over- 
night. Pour off any water remaining. Put in kettle, 
cover with water, add soda and boil gently until the beans 
are slightly softened. This boiling is sometimes called 

" parboiling." Drain again. 
Put the beans into the bean- 
pot. Cut the pork into slices, 
but do not remove from the 
rind ; press down into the beans 
with rind up. Place sliced 
onion on top. Mix the mo- 
lasses, mustard, salt and cay- 
enne with one pint of boiling 
water and pour over beans. If 
liquid does not show on the sur- 
face, add more boiling water. 
Cover pot. Bake in slow oven 
six to eight hours. Uncover during the last hour, so that 
the beans will brown on top. A tireless cooker or oven 
may be used for baking beans. 

NUT AND CHEESE LOAF 

1 c. cottage cheese \ tsp. pepper 

1 c. nut meats 1 tsp. salt 

1 c. bread crumbs 2 tbsp. chopped onion 

Juice of | lemon 1 tbsp. fat 

\ c. water or meat stock 

Grind the nuts; mix the cheese, nuts, salt, pepper, 
crumbs and lemon juice. Cook the onion with the fat 
and water, or with the meat stock, until it is tender; 
add to other ingredients. Mix thoroughly. Pour into 




A Bean-pot Used for 
Baking Beans 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



79 



greased baking-dish. Bake about twenty minutes. Serve 
with tomato sauce. 

TOMATO SAUCE 

1 c. tomato-juice 1 tbsp. fat 

2 tbsp. flour 1 slice onion 

Salt and pepper 

Boil the onion in the tomato-juice for three minutes. 
Remove the onion. Continue as for any white sauce. 



PEA SANDWICHES 



I c. pea pulp 

1 tbsp. chopped nuts 



1 tbsp. grated cheese 
Lemon juice 



Press canned peas through the vegetable-ricer. Measure 
the pulp, add the cheese, chopped nuts and enough lemon 
juice to make the right 
consistency for sandwich 
filling. Spread between 
thin slices of bread. 

Plan a meal in which 
such sandwiches would be 
suitable to serve. 

EEVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What foodstuffs are 
found in large amounts in 
nuts? 

2. Which are the nuts com- 
monly used in this locality ? 

3. What is the price per 
pound of peanuts? English 
walnuts ? 

4. Is it more expensive to 
buy them shelled ? 

5. How many pounds of peanuts in the shell does it take to 
make one pound of shelled nuts ? 

6. How is peanut butter made ? 

7. What are the commonly used dried legumes? 




Food-grinder 
Used for grinding meat, vegetables, 
nuts, cheese, bread and other foods. 



80 FOODS AND COOKERY 

8. What foodstuffs do they contain ? 

9. Why are they called meat substitutes ? 

10. Why are dried legumes soaked in water? 

11. How should dried legumes be cooked? 

SALADS 

Salads may be made from vegetables, fruits, or 
meats ; or they may be a combination of vegetables 
and fruits, or of meats and vegetables to which has 
been added some kind of dressing and perhaps small 
amounts of other materials to give flavor. 

Salad dressings are of three types : mayonnaise, 
French and cooked dressing, and each type may be 
varied, making many kinds. 

Lettuce is used in the making of many salads, often 
only as a " garnish" which is used to make a dish 
more attractive. Lettuce always should be clean, 
crisp and cold when used for a salad. Celery tops, 
endive, nasturtium leaves, water cress and other gar- 
nishes are sometimes used for salad. 

Salad oil is one of the materials used in some 
dressings. Salad oil may be made from olives, 
when it is called olive oil; or it may be made from 
corn or cottonseed, when it is usually sold by a trade 
name. When buying salad oil one should examine 
the label on the can or bottle, to see whether the oil 
is made from olives or other material, since oil made 
from corn or cottonseed should not be sold at so high 
a price as olive oil. 

Eggs often form a part of the salad dressing and, 
when they are combined with the oil and used on the 
salad, add to its value as a food. Whipped cream 
also adds to the food value of a salad. 

WTien meat salads are served for luncheon or 



FOODS AND COOKERY 81 

supper, no other meat dish is needed. Vegetable 
salads, when made of the legumes, can be used as a 
meat substitute. Fruit salads can be substituted 
for dessert in many meals. 

Besides being used as a part of a meal, salads are 
often served with sandwiches as " refreshments." 

An attractive salad should have the following 
qualities : freshness, crispness and coolness ; it should 
have an appetizing flavor, and should combine well 
with the other food served in the meal. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
SALADS, SALAD DRESSINGS 

Use a corn oil, a cottonseed oil and olive oil in making 
the following dressings. The class may be divided into 
groups for the work. Compare the price of the three kinds 
of oil. Compare the taste of the dressings. 

Lettuce should be washed, dried on a cloth, and be 
thoroughly crisp before it is used with salads. 

FRENCH DRESSING 

1 tbsp. sugar \ tsp. paprika 

2 tbsp. vinegar \ tsp. salt 

4 tbsp. oil \ tsp. white pepper 

1 tsp. scraped onion, or onion juice 

To the dry ingredients add the onion and the vinegar ; 
stir thoroughly, add the oil, beat until of a thick creamy 
consistency. French dressing may be made in quantity 
and kept for several days in a cold place. Beat thoroughly 
every time it is used. 

MAYONNAISE DRESSING 



1 egg-yolk 


£ tsp. sugar 


\ tsp. salt 


% tsp. mustard 


| tsp. paprika 


\ c. oil 



\\ tbsp. vinegar or lemon juice 



82 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



The oil should be cold. Beat the egg-yolk with the 
Dover egg-beater until it is thick and lemon-colored ; 
add dry ingredients. When the mixture is well blended, 
add a little of the oil ; beat, add more oil ; beat again. 
When the mixture is thick, add a little of the lemon juice 
or vinegar; beat. Then add more oil and vinegar or 
lemon juice, beating constantly. Sometimes, in making 
this dressing, the mixture separates or curdles and does 
not become thick. When this happens, beat another egg- 
yolk until it is thick, and add the salad dressing slowly 
to the egg, beating constantly. Keep in a cold place. 



legg 

j c. vinegar 

\ c. milk 

\ tsp. mustard 



COOKED DRESSING 



Paprika if desired 



\ tsp. salt 
1 tbsp. sugar 
If tbsp. flour 
1 tbsp. butter 



Make a white sauce from the flour, butter and milk ; add 
the seasonings. Beat the egg until it is thick and lemon- 
colored. Gradually pour white sauce into the beaten egg, 






Three Salads 
Asparagus tips, potato and head lettuce. 

stirring well. Place in double-boiler and cook five to 
ten minutes. Add the vinegar slowly. If there are 
lumps, strain through a wire sieve. Cool. 

If the dressing is thicker than desired, it may be thinned 
with a little cream or milk when it is to be used. For 
some salads, whipped cream may be added to the dressing. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 83 

SALMON SALAD 

\ c. salmon 1 small chopped sweet picldc 

1 tbsp. chopped celery or shredded cabbage 
Mayonnaise dressing 

Drain oil from salmon, remove all pieces of bone and 
skin. Add the celery or cabbage and the pickle. Mix 
carefully with a fork. Add dressing. Place on a bed of 
shredded lettuce. Garnish with hard-cooked egg if 
desired. 

BANANA SALAD 

Peel and scrape a banana. Slice lengthwise and once 
crosswise. Arrange on lettuce. Use cooked dressing to 
which whipped cream has been added. Chopped nuts 
may be sprinkled over the top. 

VEGETABLE SALAD 

Cooked and fresh vegetables make good salads with the 
addition of French or cooked dressing. The following 
combinations are suggested : 

Diced carrots, peas and chopped peanuts. 

Green beans, chopped onion and parsley. 

Potato, cucumber and green pepper. 

Lima beans, carrots and peas. 

Tomato; stuffed with cabbage, celery or cucumber. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. Name the types of salad dressings. 

2. What kinds of oils may be used in making dressings ? 

3. Which is most expensive ? 

4. What is the use of a "garnish" ? What are some materials 
used for garnishing? 

5. When should meat salads be served ? Prepare a plan for 
a luncheon or supper in which it is proper to serve salmon salad. 

6. What kind of vegetable salad can be substituted for meat 
in the meal ? Why ? Prepare a plan for a meal in which " Lima 
bean, carrot and pea" salad is suitable. 

7. Plan a luncheon or supper in which a fruit salad is suitable. 



84 FOODS AND COOKERY 

8. What are the characteristics of a good salad? 

9. What may be served with salads ? 

10. Bring to class a good recipe for cheese crackers and one 
for cheese straws. 

11. How should wafers be crisped when served with salads? 

12. What is " head lettuce "? " leaf lettuce "? What is the 
price of lettuce ? 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
SERVE A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER 

Suggested Menu : Cream of Corn Soup 
Cabbage Salad 
Bread and Butter 
Baked Apple with Cream 

Make other menus for supper or luncheon. 

DRIED FRUITS 

Drying is one way of preserving fruits. Many 
housekeepers on farms dry apples and other fruits 
at home, but a very much larger amount is dried by 
commercial firms. Many thousand tons of peaches, 
apricots, prunes and raisins are dried in California 
every year and shipped to all parts of the United 
States and to many other countries. Some of our 
dried fruits, such as dates, figs and raisins, come from 
foreign countries. 

Prunes are a kind of plum that have been dried. 
Raisins are dried grapes. Dates are the fruit of the 
date palm. Figs come from the fig tree. 

Apricots, peaches and prunes are usually purchased 
by the pound, and when packed in bulk should be 
carefully washed before using. They are often 
packed several pounds in a box, and if the whole 
box is purchased are cheaper in price. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 85 

Raisins, figs and dates of the best grade are sold 
in carefully wrapped packages. They can also be 
purchased by the pound. " Seeded " raisins are sold 
by the box, but it is well to look them over carefully 
to remove any seeds that may have been left. 

Dried fruits, before cooking, should be washed 
carefully and then soaked in cold water overnight. 
The soaking shortens the time required for cooking 
and develops the flavor. They should be cooked in 
the water in which they have been soaked. A fire- 
less cooker is useful in cooking dried fruits because 
they require long cooking. 

Dried fruits are used in place of fresh fruits or 
canned fruit, and when well cooked make a good 
dessert for luncheon and supper, or served as the fruit 
dish for breakfast. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
DRIED FRUITS 

Experiment : 1. Wash one half pound each of dried 
peaches, prunes and apricots ; to each add one pint 
of water. Soak overnight. Drain off and save any 
remaining water. How much does each fruit weigh? 
Explain what has happened. 

2. Place the prunes in a closely covered kettle, add 
liquid in which they were soaked. Set kettle inside of 
large kettle of tireless cooker, fill cooker kettle half full 
of hot water. Cover cooker kettle. Place on hot 
radiator in cooker. Cook about three hours. Do 
not open the cooker during this period. Remove prunes 
from cooker, add one half cup of sugar and boil for ten 
minutes over direct heat. Serve cold. 

3. Place apricots in a saucepan, add liquid in which 
they were soaked, cover saucepan. Place over fire 



86 FOODS AND COOKERY 

and simmer gently until fruit is tender. Hot water 
may be added if necessary. Add one half cup sugar, 
and heat until sugar is melted. Serve cold. 

4. If there is a steam cooker in the laboratory, cook 
the peaches in this. Follow the same directions as for 
Experiment 2, except that the small kettle can be set 
directly on the shelf of the steam cooker. 

5. Compare the fruit cooked in the different ways, as 
to appearance. Which is the most economical way of 
cooking ? 

TRUNE WHIP 

1 egg-white 1 c. prune pulp 

1 tbsp. lemon juice 

Remove the seeds from the cooked prunes, rub prunes 
through a wire sieve, add lemon juice. Heat pulp. Beat 
egg-white very stiff. Add prune pulp gradually, folding 
it into the egg-white. Pile on serving-dish. Chill and 
serve as dessert. 

DATE PUDDING 

f c. sugar 1 tsp. baking powder 

2 eggs 1 c. dates, seeded and chopped 

\ c. flour into small pieces 

1 c. chopped English walnut \ tsp. salt 
meats 

Beat the eggs slightly, add the sugar, beat until creamy. 
Mix dates, nuts, baking powder, flour and salt, and add 
to first mixture. Mix and turn into a greased baking- 
dish. Bake in moderate oven twenty to thirty minutes, 
or until the pudding just becomes firm. Serve hot or 
cold with whipped cream. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. Name the dried fruits you have seen. 

2. What fruits are often dried at home ? 

3. What methods are used in drying fruits at home ? Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 841, " Drying Fruits and Vegetables in the Home", 



FOODS AND COOKERY 87 

from Division of Publications, IT. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Wash- 
ington, D. C, will tell you how fruits are dried. 

4. What fruit arc prunes? raisins? 

5. From which countries do we obtain dates, figs and 
raisins ? 

6. What is the price per pound of apricots, prunes and dried 
peaches ? 

7. In what kinds of packages may dates, figs and raisins be 
purchased ? 

8. What is the price of the ordinary package of dates? of 
figs? Read the label on the package to find weight of 
contents. 

9. Give general directions for cooking dried fruits. 

10. Plan a luncheon or supper in which date pudding might 
be used correctly as the dessert. 



QUICK BREADS 

All breads are divided into two classes, (1) quick 
breads and (2) yeast breads. Quick breads are made 
in a shorter time than is required for making yeast 
breads, and are generally served hot. 

A quick bread requires the following ingredients : 
flour, a liquid, salt and a leavening agent. To these 
may be added some other ingredients, not necessary 
but often desired, such as shortening, sweetening, 
flavoring and eggs. 

White, whole wheat and Graham flours, and corn 
meal, are generally used in the making of quick 
breads. Other flours that can be used are corn, rice, 
rye, buckwheat, barley and potato flours. Corn 
meal is used more extensively in the South than 
elsewhere in the United States. Since corn is a cereal 
it is a very valuable food ; therefore corn meal and 
other corn products should be used in greater 
quantities than they are in most families. There 



88 FOODS AND COOKERY 

are two kinds of corn meal, (1) yellow, made from 
yellow corn, and (2) white, made from white corn. 
The flavor differs slightly. 

The material added to any bread to make it 
" light" is called a leavening agent. The leavening 
agents commonly used are air, steam, baking powder, 
soda and yeast ; all except the last are the ones used 
in quick breads. 

Air is added by beating eggs very light and folding 
them into the flour mixture, or by rapidly beating the 
flour mixture itself. The air expands when heated, 
causing the mixture to rise. 

When the heat in the oven turns the water which 
is in the flour mixture into steam, further heat causes 
the steam to expand, and this causes the flour mix- 
ture to stretch, thus making it "rise." Popovers 
are a kind of quick bread made to rise with air and 
steam. 

Baking powder is a compound made of baking 
soda, an acid substance and a starchy material. 
The acid substance used varies with different baking 
powders. Some of the good baking powders are 
made by combining cream of tartar (the acid sub- 
stance), baking soda and starch. Whenever baking 
soda is put with an acid and moisture is added, carbon 
dioxide gas is formed. This is what happens when 
baking powder is put in a flour mixture, — the 
baking powder supplying the acid and soda, while the 
moisture is supplied by the flour mixture. When 
heat is applied, this gas expands the flour mixture 
and causes it to rise. 

Baking powder is used when sweet milk or water is 
the liquid used in the flour mixture. 

It is never wise to buy cheap baking powder, 



FOODS AND COOKERY 89 

for it is often poorly made and does not produce 
good results. 

Baking soda is used with sour milk or buttermilk. 
The sour milk and buttermilk contain the acid needed 
to combine with the soda to form the carbon dioxide 
gas. Soda is often used when molasses is needed in 
the recipe, because some kinds of molasses contain 
a good deal of acid ; but much molasses that is now 
sold is not very acid, and soda must be used with it 
carefully. Baking soda is difficult to use correctly 
with milk in cookery because the amount of acid 
present in the milk varies; 

HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS 

Make a list of the brands of baking powder that 
you have seen advertised or used. In what kind of 
container is baking powder sold ? Why ? 

What is the difference in price per pound when 
baking powder is bought in a one pound container, 
one half pound and one fourth pound ? 

Is corn meal sold by the pound or in the pack- 
age? 

Which is the more commonly used in this locality, 
white or yellow corn meal ? Why ? 

Make a list of firms making flour which you have 
seen advertised. Is there a flour mill in the neighbor- 
hood ? If so, perhaps the teacher can arrange to go 
through the flour mill with the girls. In that case, 
write down all the processes through which the 
wheat goes in becoming flour. 



90 FOODS AND COOKERY 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

QUICK BREADS 

In all recipes sift the flour before measuring. 

BAKING-POWDER BISCUITS 

\ c. milk 2 tsp. baking powder 

1 c. flour 1 tbsp. fat 

\ tsp. salt 

Add the salt and baking powder to the flour ; sift again. 
Cut the fat into the flour, using two knives. Add the 
liquid and mix quickly. Place on floured board, roll one 
half to three fourths inch in thickness, cut with biscuit- 
cutter, place in baking-pan. Have oven hot when biscuits 
are put in. Bake fifteen minutes. 

MUFFINS 

2 c. flour 2 tbsp. sugar 
4 tsp. baking powder 1 c. milk 

\ tsp. salt 2 tbsp. melted butter 

1 egg 

Sift flour, baking powder, salt and sugar together. 
Beat egg slightly, add milk. Stir the flour mixture into 
the liquid, add the melted butter. Place in greased muffin 
tins. Have oven moderately warm when muffins are 
put in. Bake about twenty minutes. 

SOUTHERN SPOON CORN BREAD 

2 c. white corn meal 2 eggs 

2\ c. boiling water \\ c. buttermilk 

1^ tbsp. melted fat 1 tsp. soda 
1^ tsp. salt 

Add corn meal gradually to boiling water and let stand 
until cool. Beat egg yolks slightly ; add salt, buttermilk 
and soda ; mix immediately with corn meal. Beat two 
minutes, add the stiffly beaten egg-whites. Put in buttered 
baking-dish. Bake in a moderate oven forty-five minutes. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 91 

CAKE 

Cake, well made and well baked, is not harmful if 
eaten slowly and not in too great quantity. 

Children should not be allowed to eat large amounts 
of cake because it contains a good deal of sugar, and 
although sugar is a good food, yet when too much is 
eaten it may irritate the stomach and cause trouble 
in digestion. Then too, cake, like "new" bread, 
is so soft and tender that it is a temptation to swallow 
it without proper chewing. When too much cake 
is eaten it spoils the appetite for other more useful 
foods, such as milk and vegetables. 

Cookies are best for little children because they 
are drier and require more chewing. Cake should be 
eaten at mealtime and not as a " piece" between 
meals. 

All cakes may be placed in txoo classes: (1) those 
made without fat, such as sponge cake, and (2) those 
made with fat, such as plain butter cakes. A plain 
cake recipe may be varied in a great many ways, 
thereby affording different kinds of cake. Some of 
the materials that may be added to change the taste 
and appearance are spices, flavoring extracts, fruits, 
nuts and chocolate. Butter has been considered the 
only fat suitable to use in making cake, but with 
butter high in price many have used other fats and 
found them very good. Some of these are oleo- 
margarine, corn oil, cottonseed oil and other vege- 
table fats. 

Pastry flour is often used in cake-making and 
makes a tenderer cake than many bread flours. A 
bread flour made from soft wheat is better for use in 
cake than one made from hard wheat. 



92 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



When too much sugar is used, it makes the cake 
more crumbly and the crust sticky and tough. 
Honey or syrup sometimes may be used in a 

cake in place of sugar. 

Baking powder, soda, 
eggs and air are the 
leavening agents used in 
cakes. 

Loaf and layer cakes 
are flour mixtures called 
thick batters, while cookies 
are called stiff doughs. A 
batter is a flour mixture 
that is stirred with a 
spoon. A dough is a mix- 
ture stiff enough to be 
rl mjQfi kneaded and rolled. 

Cakes and cookies 
should be kept in tight 
metal containers so that 
they will not dry out, and so that they will not 
absorb moisture from the air. 





Cake-mixer 



LABORATORY EXERCISES 



CAKE-MAKING 

Cakes made with fat : The following method is generally 
used in making cakes with fat : 

1. Measure all ingredients. 

2. Grease the cake-pans. 

3. Cream the fat by rubbing and beating with a 

wooden spoon. 

4. Add sugar gradually, beating the mixture until 

it is of a creamy consistency. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 93 

5. Beat yolk of eggs until it is thick and lemon- 

colored. Add to butter and sugar. 

6. Add the baking powder to part of the flour. 

7. Add the rest of the flour and milk alternately to 

the egg and sugar mixture. 

8. Add vanilla and baking powder. 

9. Beat egg-whites very stiff and fold into mixture. 

10. Half fill greased pans. Bake. 

11. Fruit or nuts should be mixed with a little of 

the flour and added just before the egg-whites. 

STANDARD CAKE 

\ c. butter \ c. milk 

1 c. sugar If c. flour 

2 eggs 2\ tsp. baking powder 



tsp. vanilla 



This cake recipe may be varied by adding one cup 
chopped nuts ; or 1 tablespoon spice ; or two ounces 
melted chocolate ; or one half cup currants. 

Cakes made without fat. The following is the method 
used in making cakes without fat : 

1. Sift flour and sugar several times before measur- 

ing. 

2. Beat yolks of eggs until the mass is thick and 

lemon-colored. 

3. Add sugar gradually, beating with Dover egg- 

beater. 

4. Add lemon juice or other flavoring. 

5. Beat egg-whites until very stiff. 

6. Partially fold egg-white into sugar and egg mix- 

ture*. 

7. Remove egg-beater; use spatula, and fold in 

flour and salt very carefully. 

8. Bake in a tube cake-pan, unbuttered. 

9. Bake forty to sixty minutes in a slow oven. 

10. Do not open oven door for first twenty minutes. 



94 FOODS AND COOKERY 

11. After removing cake from oven, invert pan on 
cake-rack, but do not remove cake until cold. 

SPONGE CAKE 

6 eggs Grated rind of h lemon 

1 c. sugar 1 c. flour 

1 tbsp. lemon juice \ tsp. salt 

BOILED FROSTING 

1 c. sugar § c. water 

1 tsp. flavoring 1 egg-white 

Mix sugar with water and boil until it " spins a thread " 
(232° F. on the thermometer). Beat egg-white stiff; 
over this pour the syrup slowly, beating all the time until 
it first begins to stiffen. Add flavoring and spread over 
cooled cake. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What is a " leavening agent " ? 

2. Name the leavening agents used in quick breads; in 
cakes ; in yeast bread. 

3. What leavening agent is used with sweet milk ? with sour 
milk? with molasses? 

4. Explain the action of baking powder in a flour mixture. 

5. Explain the action of soda in a flour mixture. 

6. What is the leavening agent used in sponge cake ? Explain 
the action. 

7. Into what two classes may cakes be divided? Give ex- 
amples under each class. 

8. Give the proportions of ingredients used in a standard cake. 

9. How may this be varied ? 

10. Give the general rules for making a cake with butter; 
without butter. 

11. Give directions and proportions for baking-powder 
biscuits. 

12. What kind of flour may be used in cakes? 

13. Define the terms "dough" and "batter." 

14. When and how should cake be eaten? 

15. Why are cookies best for little children? 



FOODS AND COOKERY 95 

THE SCHOOL LUNCH 

Many children must carry their lunch to school 
unless the school has a lunch-room where lunch may 
be purchased. It is very important that the lunch 
be of the right kind for the child, that it be packed in a 
way to keep it in good condition, and that it be eaten 
in an orderly way at the school. 

First let us consider what foods are good to use 
in the school lunch. Sandwiches are important and 
should be made from well made, thinly sliced bread, 
with butter or with a good filling. Eggs, meat, dates, 
figs, peanut butter, lettuce, nuts and cheese are some 
of the foods that are good for fillings, and there are 
many ways of combining them. 

Milk is excellent to include in any lunch, and 
when one wishes to vary the taste it may be com- 
bined with other materials and made into custards, 
blanc mange, cocoa, or soups. Soups or cocoa can 
be carried to school in a thermos bottle, and some- 
thing hot on a cold day is very good. 

Rice may be prepared in many ways for the school 
lunch. Cookies, simple little cakes, or sweet crackers 
are always good. Fruit, raw or cooked, should be 
used often. 

Tin buckets or tin boxes keep the lunch in the best 
condition. Lunch-boxes with a thermos bottle 
slipped in the top may be purchased, but they are 
expensive. 

Pasteboard boxes are not good because they can- 
not be thoroughly cleaned. Newspapers should not 
be used for wrapping lunches ; if paper must be used, 
choose clean wrapping-paper. 

Oiled or waxed paper should be used for separately 



96 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



wrapping sandwiches, cakes and other foods to go in 
the lunch. This paper can be purchased at little cost 
and keeps the food in better condition. Covered 
glasses should be used for custards and similar foods. 
Paper napkins, to be used as a cover for the desk or 
table, and for wiping the fingers, should be in every 
lunch. Each child should have a drinking-cup and 
whatever silver is needed for eating the lunch. In 




Lunch-box 

With a thermos bottle, oiled paper, drinking-cup, paper napkins and 

covered glass. 

packing the lunch, place the articles in the box in 
such a manner that they will jar as little as possible. 

In some schools the girls in the cooking class pre- 
pare a hot dish for luncheon at noon ; in other places 
the mothers send from home a hot soup, cocoa, or stew 
in a fireless cooker. 

Before eating the lunch, the hands and face should 
be washed. Every child should have his or her own 
soap and towel to use. The lunch should be eaten 



FOODS AND COOKERY 97 

slowly, either at the desk or at the table provided for 
that purpose, and the very best table manners should 
be practiced. After finishing the lunch, pupils 
should put the room in good order. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

THE SCHOOL LUNCH 

SANDWICHES 

Breads good to use for sandwiches are white yeast bread, 
whole wheat bread, brown bread, nut bread and raisin 
bread. The butter used should be creamed by stirring 
and beating with a spoon until it is creamy instead of 
solid. A spatula is best to use for spreading butter on 
the bread. The slices of bread coming together in the 
loaf should be put together in the sandwich so that 
they " fit." 

Sandwiches for the lunch may be varied in three ways : 

(1) by using different kinds of bread, 

(2) by using different kinds of filling, 

(3) by cutting the bread into different shapes. 

The following are some good sandwich fillings. Perhaps 
some of the members of the class can suggest others. 

1. Date paste, made of chopped dates and a little water, 
cooked together until a paste is formed. Lemon juice 
and chopped nuts may be added. 

2. Jelly, jam, or marmalade. 

3. Cottage cheese with pimento or nuts. 

4. Lettuce with salad dressing. 

5. Hard-cooked eggs, put through vegetable-ricer and 
seasoned. Minced ham or salad dressing may be added. 

6. " Left-over " meat, chopped and seasoned, or mixed 
with salad dressing. 

7. Cooked dried beans, put through a colander and 
mixed with cream, or salad dressing and chopped pickle. 

8. Pea pulp with grated cheese and nuts. 



98 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



NUT BREAD 

^ c. chopped nut meats 
2 tsp. baking powder 
\ tsp. salt 
f c. sugar \ egg 

Mix a little of the flour with the nuts ; mix a little with 
the baking powder. Beat the egg, add the sugar and 
salt. Add the sweet milk and flour alternately ; then the 



1 c. brown flour 

1 c. white flour 

1 c. sweet milk 
i 




Busy Cooks in a Rural School 
Perhaps they are preparing the noon lunch. 



Pour into greased bread-pan. 
Bake one hour in a moderate 



nuts and baking powder. 
Let rise twenty minutes, 
oven. 

DATE CAKES 

1 lb. dates 2\ c. rolled oats 



1 c. brown sugar 
1 c. water 
1 c. fat 



2| c. flour 

1 c. granulated sugar 

\ tsp. salt 



FOODS AND COOKERY 99 

Wash, seed and chop dates ; add brown sugar and one 
half the water ; cook until a paste is formed. Cream fat 
and granulated sugar together. Add the salt. Add re- 
mainder of water, flour and rolled oats, alternately. Place 
a little of the mixture on the bread-board, roll very thin. 
Over the top of half the dough spread some of the date 
paste ; fold the other half of the dough over this ; press 
together gently. Cut with sharp knife into rectangular 
pieces, any size desired. Place on baking-sheets and bake 
in a moderate oven twenty to thirty minutes. Never try 
to roll more than a small portion of the dough at a time, 
because it is difficult to fold over a large amount. 



BAKED CUSTARD 

1 pt. milk 2 eggs 

2 tbsp. sugar \ tsp. vanilla 

| tsp. salt 

Scald the milk, sugar and salt together. Beat the eggs 
slightly, pour the scalded milk over them gradually ; add 
vanilla, stir well. Pour into cups or ramekins. Set in 
pan of warm water ; bake in a moderate oven until a knife 
thrust through the middle of the custard will come out 
clean. 
Directions. Obtain several good containers end other 

equipment necessary for packing lunches. Divide the 

class into groups, and have each group prepare foods 

suitable to use in the school lunch. 
Pack the following lunches : 

(1) Nut bread and butter sandwiches (two) 
Lettuce sandwich 

One orange 

Date cookies (two) 

(2) Milk 

Egg sandwiches (two) 
Jelly sandwich 
Baked apple 



100 FOODS AND COOKERY 

(3) Bread and butter sandwiches (two), cut in tri- 
angular shape 
Nut bread and butter sandwich 
Custard 

Dates, raisins, or figs 
Plan some lunches in which cocoa, or soup, or meat 
stew is served at school and the rest of the lunch is 
brought in the lunch-box. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What kind of lunch-boxes should be used? Why? 

2. Name the other equipment needed for packing a lunch well. 

3. What is the price of oiled paper? Where can it be ob- 
tained in this locality? 

4. How should the school lunch be served? 

5. What rules should be followed when eating the lunch? 

6. How should good sandwiches be made ? 

7. Should the daughter in the house help prepare the lunch 
for school? 

8. What foods should be prepared in sufficient quantity for 
several lunches, to be used on different days ? 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
SERVE A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER 

Suggested Menu : Cheese strata 

Lettuce sandwiches 
Dried peaches 
Sponge cake 
Estimate the cost of the meal. 

Serve several luncheons or suppers, if there is time in the 
course. 

If possible, serve a buffet supper, inviting the mothers 
as guests. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 101 

THE DINNER PLAN 

Dinner, in most homes, is the " heaviest" meal 
served during the day because it consists usually of a 
greater variety of food than do the other two. 

The home dinner may be planned in one of three 
ways : (1) Meat, with one or two vegetables ; 
bread and butter with jam, jelly, or preserves; 
dessert. (2) Meat, with one or two vegetables ; 
salad ; bread and butter with jam, jelly, or preserves ; 
dessert. (3) Soup ; meat, with one or two vege- 
tables ; bread and butter with jam, jelly, or pre- 
serves ; salad ; dessert. A very simple meal is 
a one-dish meal ; that is, a combination dish, con- 
sisting of both meat and vegetables, served with 
bread and butter, and perhaps a sweet or dessert of 
some kind. 

The plan which is best to use for dinner de- 
pends upon several things : (1) what kind of meals 
have already been eaten during the day, (2) what 
amount of money can be spent for food and (3) 
what amount of time should be spent in getting 
the meal. 

When meals are planned, they should be arranged 
for the whole day at least. If a very light break- 
fast and a simple luncheon or supper are to be served, 
it is necessary to have a heavier dinner than when a 
good deal of heavy food (food containing much food 
value) is served for breakfast, luncheon, or supper. 
Then, too, the kinds of food served in any one meal 
must be considered when the others are planned, be- 
cause variety is necessary in the diet. Foods used 
often should be varied by preparing them in different 
ways; for example, potatoes should not be served 



102 FOODS AND COOKERY 

mashed every day for dinner, but should be served in 
other ways on different days. 

It is not necessary to have soup at the beginning 
of a dinner, nor is it necessary always to have a 
dessert at the end. The housewife should not serve 
a heavy dessert, such as a pie or rich pudding, at the 
end of a meal in which a meat, vegetables and a salad 
have been served. It is better to serve a dessert of 
fruit, or plain gelatine pudding, at the end of such a 
meal. 

Too many vegetables should not be served at 
dinner ; the general rule of serving two is a good one 
to follow. Lettuce is usually served with any salad 
and would make the third. In choosing the two, it 
is better to select one starchy and one green vegetable, 
the two being pleasing in taste when eaten together. 
When a vegetable salad is served, it can take the 
place of one of the cooked vegetables. 

Only one kind of meat should be served. A meat 
or fish salad should not be served when another 
meat dish is being used. Eggs are not needed when 
meat is served, nor should meat be served with 
baked beans. 

The same vegetable should not be served twice 
in the same meal ; for example, do not serve potatoes 
in a hot dish and also in a salad, nor rice as a vege- 
table and in a rice pudding, nor tomato salad and 
tomato sauce for the meat. Do not serve more 
than one kind of " sweet" at a meal. 

When a housekeeper must do everything herself, 
without help, she should consider the length of lime 
needed in the preparation of a meal. Some dishes 
require a much longer time in their preparation than 
it is right for the housekeeper to spend when there 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



103 



are others more easily prepared that are quite as 
good. No person should spend too large a share 
of her time in cooking, as there are other things as 
important to be done. It is necessary to prepare 
enough food and to have it well cooked, but " fancy" 
cookery takes too much time when the housekeeper 
does all of the household work in her home. 

It is wise to think about the amount of fuel used 
in getting a meal if other than a coal or wood range 
is used. Sometimes 
it is economical to 
plan a meal with 
all the main dishes 
baked in the oven, 
or cooked in the 
steam cooker, or in 
the fireless cooker, 
instead of cooking 
one dish in the oven 
and one or two on 
top of the stove. 

To plan, cook and 
serve a good dinner 

is a difficult piece of work, and any girl deserves 
praise when she can do this at home without her 
mother's help. 




Deep-fat Kettle, with Frying-basket 



LABORATORY EXERCISES 
LEFT-OVER DISHES 

Experiments : 1. Place the kettle of fat over the fire and 
heat until it begins to " foam " on the surface. Place a 
cube of bread in the fat. After one minute remove the 
bread ; break it apart. Has the bread absorbed the fat ? 



104 FOODS AND COOKERY 

2. Continue heating the fat until blue smoke rises 
from the surface. Place another cube of bread in the 
fat. After one minute remove the bread ; break it 
apart. Has the fat been absorbed as in the bread used 
in No. 1 ? Which temperature would be best to use in 
frying croquettes ? Can you explain why ? Would 
you want the fat as hot for frying doughnuts ? Why ? 

CROQUETTES 

Croquettes may be made of left-over meat, vegetables, or 
cereals, alone or combined, and may be mixed with thick 
gravies, No. 4 White Sauce, or egg. The croquettes 




No. 2, Croquettes. No. 3, Meat Loaf. No. 5, Pea Sandwiches 

should be mixed, the hot sauce added, and then allowed to 
cool. Be careful to add only enough sauce or eggs to 
bind together the ingredients. 

When the mixture is cold, form the croquettes into the 
desired shape, either ball, pyramid, or roll. Beat an egg 
slightly, add two tablespoons of water, and mix thoroughly. 
Use bread crumbs that are very fine. Roll the croquette 
in the egg, then in the crumbs, then in egg, and then in 
crumbs. Place croquettes in frying-basket and lower the 
basket carefully into the hot fat. Fry until brown. Re- 
move croquettes and place on crumpled brown paper to 



FOODS AND COOKERY 105 

drain. Be careful not to pierce or break the crust on the 
croquette, either while it is in the fat or when removing 
it from the fat. 

The following are some combinations used in croquettes : 

SALMON CROQUETTES 

I c. No. 4 White Sauce 

§ c. canned salmon, flaked 

Lemon juice, paprika and salt to taste 

POTATO CROQUETTES 

1 pt. mashed potatoes 1 tsp. chopped parsley 

2 tbsp. butter 1 egg yolk or \ egg 

\ tsp. salt Onion juice if desired 

BEEF AND RICE CROQUETTES 

1 c. finely chopped beef \ tsp. pepper 

\ c. cooked rice Tomato sauce or left-over gravy 

SCALLOPED HAM AND EGGS 

2 hard-cooked eggs 1 c. No. 2 White Sauce 

\ c. chopped ham Buttered bread crumbs 

In the bottom of a buttered baking-dish, or ramekin, 
place a layer of crumbs, then a layer of white sauce, then 
a layer of the eggs sliced, then white sauce, then ham, 
then crumbs; continue until the dish is filled. Finish 
with a layer of crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven until 
crumbs are browned and ingredients thoroughly heated 
through. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What is the material used for binding together the in- 
gredients in each of the croquette recipes ? 

2. What would be the result if too much white sauce were 
added to the croquette mixture ? 

3. What are other recipes for using left-overs? 

4. Give three general plans for dinner. 

5. What points must be considered when planning a dinner? 



106 FOODS AND COOKERY 

6. Should meals be planned singly or for the day ? Why? 

7. Give the general rules to follow in planning the vegetables 
for dinner. 

8. What are some reasons for not serving more than one 
meat for dinner ? 

9. What should not be served at a dinner where meat is used ? 

10. Should the same food be served twice in one meal ? Give 
examples. 

11. In what way may fuel be saved in getting a dinner? 

12. Plan some dinners that would be economical as to price 
and time, and that would be pleasing in taste and appearance. 



VEGETABLES 

The term vegetable includes a large class of foods 
which are used in great quantities in our diet. 
Vegetables of many kinds can now be had at all 
seasons of the year because the canned and dried 
vegetables, like the fresh ones, can be shipped suc- 
cessfully from one part of the country to another. 
In large city markets a great variety of fresh vege- 
tables can be bought, even in midwinter. Hot- 
house and imported vegetables are expensive and 
in many cases not of good flavor. Lettuce is now 
used by many households at all seasons of the year ; 
it is usually good when carefully selected, and it 
satisfies the desire for something green during the 
winter. 

Vegetables are important in the diet because they 
furnish a large share of the mineral matter needed 
by the body. They supply carbohydrates, in the 
form of starch and sugar, and also supply bulk in 
the diet. 

There are several classifications given for vege- 
tables ; perhaps the best one to use is that which 
divides them into green and starchy vegetables. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 107 

The green vegetables are sometimes called watery 
or succulent vegetables. They contain very little 
starch, but are valuable as food for their mineral 
matter, and for the cellulose and the vitamines they 
supply. They are useful because they furnish variety 
in our meals. Such vegetables as lettuce, cabbage, 
Brussels sprouts, celery, cucumbers, radishes, onions 
and tomatoes are green vegetables. 

Green vegetables are of two kinds, (1) those with a 
mild flavor, such as celery and squash, and (2) those 
with a strong flavor, such as cabbage and onions. 

All vegetables lose food value when boiled in a 
large quantity of water, because mineral matter and 
other soluble materials are dissolved out of them. 

Steaming is a better way of cooking vegetables, 
if all the food value is to be retained. Mild- 
flavored vegetables taste well when steamed, or 
when boiled in just enough water to keep them from 
burning. The strong-flavored vegetables are of better 
flavor when cooked in a quantity of water, and this 
method is most common, even though the food value 
is lessened. 

The starchy vegetables are such vegetables as 
potatoes, corn, sweet potatoes and parsnips; also 
the legumes which have already been studied. 

Baking is an excellent method for cooking vege- 
tables which taste well when prepared in that way. 
Boiling vegetables, such as the potato, with the skin 
on, prevents the loss of food value. 

Vegetables are cooked for several reasons : (1) to 
soften the cellulose, (2) to change or improve the 
flavor, (3) to make the starch easier to digest, (4) to 
vary the way of serving them. 

Vegetables are often cooked for too long a time. 



108 FOODS AND COOKERY 

This spoils the flavor and perhaps the appearance, 
in addition to causing a loss of food value. They 
should be cooked until tender and not allowed to 
stand after they are done. Cabbage is a vegetable 
usually cooked for too long a period, in which case 
it becomes strong in flavor, tough and very different 
in appearance. 

When vegetables are purchased, the fresh crisp ones 
should be selected. Withered vegetables are not 
good in flavor and are often poor in texture. Many 
vegetables, such as corn, green peas and string beans, 
retain their good flavor but a very short time after 
being gathered. If withered vegetables must be 
used, they may be improved by long soaking in cold 
water before cooking. 

When selecting vegetables, the following points 
will be helpful : 

Green beans should be crisp, and the pod should 
snap easily. 

Green peas should have a green pod, the seed 
tender when pressed with the finger nail, and the 
pods well filled. 

Green corn should have a fresh green husk, brown 
silk, the ears well filled, and the grain tender and full 
of juice when pressed with the finger nail. 

Young carrots or fresh beets should be firm and 
have tops that are green and fresh. 

A head of lettuce should be solid when pressed, 
and not have a number of outer leaves that must 
be thrown away. Leaf lettuce should be fresh 
and of a light green color, without old and coarse 
leaves. 

Celery should be crisp, tops not wilted, and outer 
stalks neither woody nor brown in color. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 109 

A head of cabbage should be solid and with few 
leaves that cannot be used. 

Radishes should be firm, tops not wilted. 

Tomatoes should be thoroughly ripe, smooth and 
without spots that, when removed, will spoil the 
shape of the tomato. 

Many vegetables are now sold by the pound, and 
it is economy to buy those which will require little 
waste in preparation. 

HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS 

Make a list of all the vegetables you know. 
Divide the list into the following groups : 

1. Those that may be baked. 

2. Those that may be creamed. 

3. Those that may be scalloped. 

Can any of the vegetables be put in more than 
one class? 

Make a list of the green vegetables, and one of the 
starchy vegetables commonly used. Use Bulletin 
No. 28, "The Composition of American Food Ma- 
terials ", obtained from Bureau of Chemistry, De- 
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, to find 
to which class they belong. 

What is the price by the pound of the following : 
onions, carrots, turnips, parsnips, potatoes, sweet 
potatoes ? 

What is the price by the can of peas, tomatoes and 
corn? Does the price vary with the different 
brands? Can you give reasons why this might be? 
Read the label on a can of vegetables. What is 
stated on the label? Why should one read the 
label? 



110 FOODS AND COOKERY 

Bring to class one or two good recipes for prepar- 
ing vegetables which have not been used in class. 
Let every member of the class copy the recipes in 
the class notebook if they are approved. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
VEGETABLES 
BAKED SQUASH 

Wash the outside of a Hubbard squash. Cut into pieces 
about three inches square, or into any shape desired. Re- 
move the seeds. Sprinkle the inside of each piece with a 
little salt, pepper and sugar. Place on shallow pan and 
bake in oven until squash is tender and slightly browned 
on top. 

SCALLOPED CORN 

1 can corn 1 tbsp. butter 

1 pt. milk 2 eggs 

| tsp. salt 1 tbsp. sugar 

| tsp. pepper Buttered bread crumbs 

Chopped green peppers, if desired 

Beat the eggs slightly, add milk, sugar, salt and pepper : 
mix thoroughly. Add the corn. Pour the mixture into a 
buttered baking-dish, add the butter and cover top with 
bread crumbs. Set in a pan of water. Bake about forty- 
five minutes in a moderate oven. 

Would less time be required if this were baked in rame- 
kins? Why? 

CARROTS AND PEAS 

Wash and scrape a carrot. Cut into dice, place in 
boiling salted water ; boil gently until the carrot is easily 
pierced with a fork. Do not cover the saucepan, and use 
as little water as possible. When the carrot is done, 
drain it from the water; add it to an equal quantity 
of drained canned or fresh peas which are hot. Pour 



FOODS AND COOKERY 111 

melted butter over them ; sprinkle with pepper. Serve 
in a warm vegetable-dish. 

Instead of serving them in this manner, after combining 
the two vegetables, add half as much of No. 2 White Sauce 
as there is of vegetables. Re-heat and serve in bread 
boxes. Bread boxes are made by taking a piece of bread 
about three inches square and two inches high and hollow- 
ing it out to make a box. Then butter outside of box, 
place on pan, and toast in oven. Use while warm. 

These bread boxes are used simply to vary the manner of 
serving a food. Creamed oysters, creamed meats and 
other creamed vegetables are also served in bread boxes. 

How may the bread which you removed from the center 
of the box be used ? 

CREAMED ONIONS 

Peel an onion, wash and place in boiling salted water 
to cook. Do not cover pan. The onion is done when it 
can be pierced easily with a fork. Drain onion and add 
No. 2 White Sauce. Re-heat. Serve in a warmed dish. 



THE POTATO 

Potatoes are used as food in greater amount than 
any other vegetable. If all the potatoes grown, 
minus those used in other ways than human food, 
were equally divided among the people of the world, 
it would give every person about four bushels a year. 

The potato is a native of America and probably 
was first found in Chile. It was first grown in 
Europe in or about 1585. In Ireland the potato is 
one of the chief foods of the people, and for that 
reason the white potato is called the Irish potato. 

The botanist calls the potato a tuber, that is, an 
underground stem which has thickened and become 
a storehouse for food to be used by the new plants. 



112 FOODS AND COOKERY 

When the chemist examines the potato, he finds 
that it contains a large amount of starch, a little 
protein, some mineral matter and a large per cent 
of water. The potato is particularly valuable for 
its starch, and is therefore mainly a heat and energy- 
producing food. 

The method used in cooking potatoes has much to 
do with the food value. Baking or boiling "in their 
jackets" saves the food value. Peeling and then 
boiling causes some loss of the mineral matter and 
protein, since these foodstuffs are found just under 
the skin of the potato and may be lost when it is 
pared, unless very thin peelings are removed. 

Potatoes, to be cooked, should be put in boiling 
water, not in cold, as soaking peeled potatoes in 
cold water draws out the starch and also causes a 
loss of protein and mineral matter. Potatoes should 
never soak in cold water after they are peeled, if 
all of the food value is to be saved. If they are old 
and withered, they should be freshened by soaking 
before the skin is removed. Potatoes should be 
removed from the boiling water as soon as they are 
done. Baked potatoes, when done, should have the 
skin broken or pierced with a fork to allow the escape 
of the steam, which would cause the potato to be 
soggy. 

New potatoes are those sold immediately after 
they are harvested. Old potatoes are those that 
have been stored before being put on the market. 
In the spring old potatoes may sprout, which indi- 
cates that a new plant is beginning to grow from the 
"eye" of the potato. This hurts the quality of the 
potato for cooking. Potatoes that have been frozen 
are sweet, poor in flavor, and not mealy. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 113 

When buying potatoes, choose those of fairly 
uniform size, having smooth skins and free from 
scab. Potatoes are sold by the measure or by weight, 
the latter custom being much more common than 
formerly. 

Sweet potatoes are very much like Irish potatoes 
in food value, except that they contain sugar which 
gives them their sweet taste. Sweet potatoes are 
grown and used more in the South than in the 
Northern States. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

POTATOES 

BAKED STUFFED POTATOES 

Scrub with a brush, in cold water, a medium-sized, well 
shaped potato. Cut off a strip of peel one half inch wide 
around the middle of the potato. Place the potato on a 
rack in a hot oven. A medium-sized potato needs to bake 
about forty-five minutes. Test by piercing with a fork 
or pressing firmly between the fingers ; it should feel soft 
if done. 

Cut the potato into halves at the peeled strip, remove 
the inside carefully from the shells, mash, add salt, butter 
and cream, or milk, using about one teaspoon butter and 
one tablespoon milk for each potato. Beat well. Refill 
the shell with the mashed potato ; do not press down, but 
fill lightly. Place on pan and set in a hot oven to brown 
the top slightly. 

CANDIED SWEET POTATO 

Scrub sweet potatoes and place in boiling water, cook 
until partly done, peel and place in a shallow baking-dish. 
Make a syrup by boiling together equal parts of sugar and 
water ; pour this over the potatoes, sprinkle with salt and 
bits of butter. Bake in a hot oven until the potatoes are 
done and slightly brown. 



114 FOODS AND COOKERY 

FRENCH FRIED POTATOES 

Wash and peel small potatoes, cut in eighths length- 
wise ; soak thirty minutes in cold water to make very 
crisp. Take from water and dry between towels. Fry 
in a frying-basket in deep fat. Drain on brown paper 
and sprinkle with salt. 

Test the fat with a small cube of bread. If bread browns 
in one minute, the fat is the right temperature for frying 
potatoes. 

Should the fat be as hot as when frying the croquettes 
made in a previous lesson? Why? 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. Why are vegetables important in the diet? 

2. Into what two groups may vegetables be divided ? Name 
examples of each. 

3. How should highly flavored vegetables be cooked? 

4. Why are vegetables cooked ? 

5. How should mild-flavored vegetables be cooked ? 

6. Give the points to be observed in selecting the following : 
head lettuce, leaf lettuce, celery, cabbage, tomatoes, green corn 
and green peas. 

7. What foodstuffs are found in a potato ? 

8. Should peeled potatoes be soaked ? Why ? 

9. In cooking potatoes which are the best methods to use? 
Why? 

10. How may baked potatoes be kept from becoming soggy? 

11. What are "new potatoes"? "old potatoes"? 

12. How do sweet potatoes differ from Irish potatoes? 

13. Is "French fried" an economical way of preparing 
potatoes? Why? 



OTHER STARCHY FOODS 

RICE 

Rice is a food sometimes used in a meal in place 
of potatoes. Rice and potatoes should not be used 



FOODS AND COOKERY 115 

in the same meal because both are starchy foods, of 
like appearance, and without much flavor. If a rice 
pudding is to be served as dessert, then green vege- 
tables are best to use in the main course of the meal. 

Most of the rice used in the United States comes 
from the Southern States, where the growing of rice 
is becoming a much more important industry than 
formerly. 

Rice is sold in the market in two forms, (1) pol- 
ished, and (2) unpolished or brown rice. In prepar- 
ing rice for the market, the outer husk of the seed 
is removed. The rice then appears brownish in 
color and is called brown or unpolished rice. To 
remove this brown coating, the grains are polished. 
It is then sold as " polished rice" and is white in 
color. The brownish coating on the rice contains 
mineral matter and vit amines. When it is removed 
valuable food material is lost. The brown rice 
has a good flavor but does not sell so well as the 
polished rice because of its appearance. It is 
cheaper than the polished rice. When buying the 
" best " rice, one should see that the grains are uni- 
form in size and unbroken. 



MACARONI, SPAGHETTI, VERMICELLI 

Macaroni is a product made by mixing flour with 
water to form a stiff dough which is then forced 
through metallic plates that have small round 
perforations with the center of the hole filled, thus 
making long hollow tubes of dough. When the 
dough tubes have been dried in ovens they are 
packed for market. Macaroni is sold in packages 
that contain pieces cut the length of the package, 



116 FOODS AND COOKERY 

packed closely side by side, or pieces cut about two 
or three inches long. 

Spaghetti is another form in which this paste is 
sold, but for this the tubes are made smaller than 
for macaroni. Vermicelli is still another form of this 
paste, sometimes rolled and cut in fancy shapes, such 
as the alphabet. 

Macaroni and spaghetti are served as a substitute 
for starchy vegetables, and when either is used, such 
foods as potatoes, rice, corn, or beans should be 
omitted from the meal. Vermicelli is used in soups. 

Any of these products need highly seasoned foods, 
such as tomatoes or cheese, either cooked or served 
with them. To taste best, they require fat added. 

HOMINY 

Hominy is a product made from corn by removing 
the hard outside layers of the kernel. It may be 
sold in this form, or the grains may be broken into 
small pieces, when it is called grits, — or the pieces 
may be steamed and rolled, when it is known as 
flaked hominy. Hominy is a starchy food often 
used in a meal in place of potatoes, and is very 
good when well cooked. 

CORNSTARCH 

Cornstarch is also a product made from corn, and 
is used as a thickening agent. It is a fine white 
powder and is sold in packages. 

TAPIOCA 

Tapioca is a product made from the root of the 
cassava plant which grows in South America. It 



FOODS AND COOKERY 117 

is almost pure starch, and is prepared from the root 
by grating, washing and separating the starch, after 
which it is dried on metal plates. Tapioca is sold 
in two forms, (1) pearl tapioca, which is usually 
soaked several hours before cooking, and (2) granu- 
lated or minute tapioca, which need not be soaked. 
Tapioca is used mainly in making puddings. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
STARCHY FOODS 

Experiments: 1. Starch turns to a blue color whenever 
tincture of iodine is added to it. Place a drop of iodine 
on each of the following : a slice of potato, rice, tapioca, 
cream of wheat, flour, sugar, egg, meat. Which contains 
starch ? 

2. Place one half teaspoon of cornstarch in two 
tablespoons of cold water in a glass or test tube. Mix 
together well. Has the liquid changed in appearance ? 
Let this stand for fifteen minutes. What has hap- 
pened? Is the starch dissolved in the cold water? 

3. Try the same experiment, using sugar instead of 
starch. Is the result the same ? Why? 

4. Pour one half cup boiling water directly on one 
tablespoon cornstarch, stir, boil one minute. Is the 
mixture smooth? Examine the inside of a lump. Is 
it like the uncooked starch ? 

5. Mix one half teaspoon cornstarch with two table- 
spoons cold water. Heat slowly, boil one minute. Is 
the mixture smooth ? Can you explain why? 

6. Try the same experiment, mixing the cornstarch 
with an equal amount of sugar, then add boiling water. 
What is the result? 

7. Try mixing one tablespoon cornstarch with one 
half teaspoon fat and stirring into boiling water. What 
is the result? 



118 FOODS AND COOKERY 

The results would have been the same if you had used 
flour instead of cornstarch. The starch grains must be 
thoroughly separated before cooking, so that each starch 
grain may cook thoroughly. From these experiments 
determine the best method for making blanc mange. 

BLANC MANGE 

2 c. milk 2 tsp. vanilla 
I c. cornstarch f tsp. salt 

\ c. sugar Nutmeg 

The pudding should be cooked thirty minutes in a double- 
boiler. Pour into a mold that has been wet with cold 
water. When cold and " set ", remove from mold and 
serve with fruit juice, or maple syrup, or cream. 

MACARONI AND CHEESE 

Break macaroni into short pieces. Rinse and add to 
boiling salted water. Use about one fourth cup of 
macaroni with one pint of boiling water and one half 
teaspoon salt. Boil gently until macaroni is tender. 
Drain off water, pour cold water over macaroni and drain 
at once ; this prevents the pieces sticking together. 

In the bottom of a buttered baking-dish place a layer 
of well seasoned No. 2 White Sauce made with milk, then 
a layer of macaroni, then a layer of grated cheese, then one 
of white sauce, — continuing until the dish is almost 
filled. Place a layer of buttered bread crumbs on top. 
Bake slowly thirty to forty minutes. 

RICE AS A VEGETABLE 

3 c. water 1 c. rice 1 tsp. salt 

Place rice in wire strainer and wash by running water 
through the rice. Place water in top part of a double- 
boiler over direct heat and bring to boiling-point ; add 
the rice and salt. Place over boiling water and cook until 
the rice is tender. Serve. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 119 

Rice may be cooked in a steamer if desired. It is also 
cooked in boiling water over direct heat, using eight cups 
of water to one cup of rice. Why is more water needed? 
Which method would be best to use when all the food value 
is to be retained? 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What do you know about the growing of rice? 

2. In what forms is rice sold? Which has the most food 
value ? Which is better in appearance ? 

3. What is the price of polished rice per pound? of un- 
polished rice? 

4. How is macaroni made? What nation eats a great deal 
of macaroni ? 

5. What is spaghetti ? vermicelli ? 

6. How is hominy made ? 

7. What are hominy grits ? hominy flakes ? 

8. What food may hominy replace in a meal ? 

9. In what kind of package is cornstarch usually sold? 
What is the price? 

10. What is tapioca ? 

11. In what two forms may tapioca be purchased? 

12. Which is the easier to use ? 



MEAT 

The flesh of animals is called meat. The principal 
kinds used in the United States are beef, veal, 
mutton, lamb and pork. 

The slaughtering and packing of meat is one of the 
most important industries in the United States and 
is one that is governed by many federal and State 
laws. These are necessary, because meat used as 
food must be clean and free from harmful bacteria, 
as well as from parasites, which are tiny living crea- 
tures in the flesh of unhealthy animals. 

Clean meat is that from animals free from disease, 



120 FOODS AND COOKERY 

slaughtered under sanitary conditions, and kept in 
a cold place away from flies, dust and other dirt 
until sold to the housekeeper. The large packing 
firms have their plants well equipped to carry on 
this work according to law. Some of the small 
slaughterhouses used by butchers are not clean and 
are not good places for handling meat. 

The meat market or shop must be kept clean, 
and the men handling the meat must wear clean 
clothes and have clean hands if the meat is to be 
kept in good condition. As soon as fresh meat 
comes from the market the paper wrapping should 
be removed and the meat put in a cool place, away 
from flies and dust. 

In order to thoroughly understand what cooking 
does to meat, one must understand its structure. 
Meat is composed of muscle fibers held together by 
connective tissue. Each fiber is composed of 
bundles of tiny tubes filled with muscle juice com- 
posed of water in which are protein, mineral matter, 
coloring matter and extractives. The extractives 
give the flavor to meat. In between the muscles, 
and surrounding the tubes, are the particles or 
globules of fat. 

When meat is cooked the connective tissue is 
softened, the flavor is improved and changes take 
place in the muscle juice. Meat is either tender or 
tough, depending upon the age of the animal and 
the part of the carcass from which it comes. The 
tough portions come from the much exercised sections 
of the animal's body. The tough cuts usually 
have more flavor, contain as much food value, and 
when well cooked are as pleasant to the taste as 
the tender cuts. The tough cuts cost less than the 



FOODS AND COOKERY 121 

tender because there are fewer tender cuts in the 
animal carcass. 

Tender cuts of meat can be cooked successfully 
in dry heat by (1) broiling, (2) pan-broiling and 
(3) roasting. The tough cuts are best when cooked 
in moist heat by (1) stewing, (2) braising and (3) 
pot-roasting. 

When selecting meat at the market it is important 
to know the names of the several cuts and also the 
part of the animal carcass from which the cuts are 
taken, in order to decide which method is best to 
use in cooking them. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

MEATS — TENDER CUTS 

Experiments : 1. Take a small piece of tough lean meat 
and scrape with the dull edge of the knife, scraping 
both sides until nothing remains but the stringy mass 
or framework of the meat. Of what is this framework 
made? 

2. Place the stringy mass in a frying-pan and heat 
for a few minutes. What is the result ? 

3. Pour a little water in the frying-pan, cover pan 
and simmer slowly for twenty minutes. What effect 
has the moist heat had on the stringy mass ? 

What would be the best methods to use in cooking 
tough meats? Why? 

4. Place one cube of meat in a small amount of cold 
water and let boil three minutes. Place another cube 
of meat in a small amount of boiling water and boil 
three minutes. Examine the liquid on both. Do 
they differ ? Why ? Which method would you use for 
making soup? Which when the meat itself is to be 
used? Why? 



122 FOODS AND COOKERY 

PAN-BROILED STEAK 

Wipe steak with a damp cloth. Have frying-pan very 
hot. Rub a little fat over the bottom of the frying-pan. 
Place the steak in the frying-pan, sear on one side, then 
on the other; turn very often and cook until done ac- 
cording to taste. Place on warmed platter, sprinkle with 
salt and pepper, and with bits of butter if desired. 

A steak for broiling should be at least one inch thick. 
To cook a steak of this thickness to a medium degree re- 
quires about fifteen minutes. 

Lamb chops, mutton chops, or pork chops may be broiled 
in the same way. 

A broiler may be used instead of the frying-pan if there 
is one available. 

ROAST OF BEEF 

Wipe the roast with a damp cloth. Place in a roasting- 
pan in a very hot oven. Roast ten minutes, or until the 
meat is seared. Dredge the roast with salt, pepper and a 
little flour. Reduce heat in the oven and continue roast- 
ing until done according to taste ; about fifteen or twenty 
minutes must be allowed for each pound to cook to a 
medium degree. A little water may be added which 
may be used for basting the meat. A large roast is 
always more juicy than a small one, — four or five pounds 
is as small a roast as should be used to obtain good results. 

Meat may be roasted in the fireless cooker, if desired. 

CASSEROLE OF BEEF 

2 c. left-over cooked beef \ c. canned tomatoes 

1 c. gravy \ onion, thinly sliced 

\ c. celery cut in small pieces \ tsp. salt 

\ c. carrot cut in small cubes y 1 ^- tsp. pepper 
1 c. potato cubes 

Mix together and place in a casserole ; cover. Bake 
slowly one hour. Serve from casserole. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 123 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What are the principal kinds of meat used in the United 
States? 

2. Why must meat be kept clean ? 

3. What is clean meat ? 

4. Describe the structure of meat. 

5. What are the foodstuffs found in meat ? 

6. What is the chief value of meat as food ? 

7. What changes take place in meat when it is cooked ? 

8. What makes meat tough ? 

9. From what parts of the animal are the tough cuts ob- 
tained ? 

10. How may tender cuts be cooked? How should tough 
cuts be cooked ? 

11. Make a plan for dinner in which casserole of beef might 
be correctly served ; roast beef ; broiled steak. 

12. What other meats might be used in place of the beef in 
the casserole of beef ? 



MEAT (Continued) 

BEEF 

After beef is butchered, the carcass is first split 
lengthwise into two sides of beef, then each side is 
divided crosswise into the fore quarter and the hind 
quarter. The quarters are divided into the " cuts " or 
pieces as we buy them in the meat-shop. Different 
butchers make these cuts in slightly different ways, 
but in general they are the same. 

By looking at the chart showing the cuts of beef 
one can learn to what section the various cuts be- 
long. 

The following are the usual methods of cooking the 
most common cuts : 

Roasting : rib, loin, round, chuck. 

Pot-roasting : chuck, rump. 



124 



FOODS AND COOKERY 




FOODS AND COOKERY 



125 



Broiling : porterhouse, Delmonico or club steak, 
sirloin, T-bone steak. 

Soup-making : neck, brisket, leg. 

Braising : flank, chuck. 

The fireless cooker is very useful in cooking tough 
meats, because they need long slow cooking if they 
are to be tender and juicy. Heat coagulates or 
"sets" the protein in the muscle tubes, and when 




Copyright. 1915, by E. C. Bridgman. 
American Meat-cutting Chart — Veal 

the meat is cooked at a high temperature the protein 
becomes tough, just as the egg-white does when an 
egg is boiled. 

When meat is cooked, the object sought is to 
coagulate quickly the muscle juice in the ends of 
the tubes so that they are closed and no juice can 
escape; this process is called searing. Meat is 
seared, either by plunging it into boiling water, by 
placing it in a very hot oven, over hot coals, or in a 



126 FOODS AND COOKERY 

very hot frying-pan. After the meat is seared, the 
temperature should be lowered and the meat cooked 
slowly. When broiling meat, keep the fire very 
hot and turn the meat every two or three minutes, 
in order to keep the meat at the proper heat. 

Veal is meat from a calf about two months old. 

Mutton is meat from a sheep about two years 
old. 

Lamb is meat from a sheep less than one year old. 




Copyright, 1915, by E. C. BHdgman. 
American Meat-cutting Chart — Lamb 

Spring Lamb is from a sheep eight weeks to three 
months old. 

Pork is meat from the hog, and is used in great 
quantities. The cuts are shown on the chart. 
Bacon and ham are very generally used because they 
are both " cured" and can be shipped and easily 
kept. 

Leaf lard is made from leaf fat (layers of pork fat) , 
and is the best quality of lard. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



127 



Sausage is made of ground pork scraps, or trim- 
mings ; it is sold in bulk, or is stuffed in casings 
which are made of the treated skin of the intestines 
of the hog. 

Meat contains such a large amount of protein 
that it is considered an important food for body- 
building. We do not need to eat as much meat as 
we usually do, because other foods can supply the 




Copyright, 1915, by E. C. Bridgman. 
American Meat-cutting Chart — Pork 

necessary protein. There is probably no person 
who needs meat three times a day. When meats 
are expensive, well balanced meals may be planned 
without the use of much meat. 



HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS 

What is the price per pound of the following : 
round steak, rump-beef roast, chuck-beef roast, 
porterhouse steak, a whole ham, slice of ham, side 
of bacon, sliced bacon, mutton chops, veal steak, 
rib-pork roast ? 



128 FOODS AND COOKERY 

Is there a slaughterhouse in the neighborhood? 

Where are the large packing plants from which 
the local butcher buys meat? What firms manage 
the largest packing plants in the world ? 

See if you can find the government inspection 
stamp on any of the meat which is used in your 
home. What does this indicate? 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
MEATS — TOUGH CUTS 

SWISS STEAK 

Place on a meat-board a piece of steak one inch thick 
cut from the round. Wipe the meat with a damp cloth, 
and pound flour into it, using the dull edge of a heavy 
saucer or small plate to pound with. Pound on both sides 
thoroughly. The pounding breaks apart the muscle of 
the meat, and helps to make it tender. 

Have a frying-pan hot ; in this place some fat and when 
it is melted place the meat in the pan. Brown the meat 
on both sides, and sprinkle it with salt and pepper. Add 
boiling water to half cover the meat. Tomato juice may 
be used instead, if desired. Chop onion, green peppers 
and carrots, and place over and around the meat. Cover 
and place in slow oven or fireless cooker. Cook until the 
meat is tender. 

POT ROAST 

Use a piece of rump for this. Wipe the meat with a 
damp cloth, and brown it in hot fat in the frying-pan. 
Place in a kettle, add boiling water until the meat is half 
covered. Diced carrots, turnips, onions, or celery may 
be added if desired. Place in a fireless cooker, or simmer 
gently on the stove until the meat is tender. For gravy, 
the water in which the meat is cooked may be thickened 
or served as it is. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 129 

BEEF STEW 

1 lb. beef (tough cut) 1 carrot 

2 potatoes \ onion 

Flour Salt and pepper 

Cut beef in one-inch pieces, dredge with flour. Brown 
the onion, and then the meat, in hot fat in a frying-pan. 
If there is fat that can be removed from the meat, this 
may be used in the frying-pan. Add enough boiling water 
to nearly cover the meat. Cook until the meat is almost 
done, then add the diced vegetables and cook until the 
vegetables are done. The liquid may be thickened before 
serving, if desired. If the stew is placed in the tireless 
cooker the vegetables may be added at first, since it is not 
desirable to open the cooker before the meat is done. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What is a "side of beef"? a "quarter of beef"? a "cut 
of beef"? 

2. Name some cuts of meat coming from the fore quarter of 
beef ; from the hind quarter. 

3. What cuts of beef should be used for broiling? for pot- 
roasting? for roasting? for braising? 

4. What is meant by "searing"? How is meat seared? 

5. What is meant when the recipe says "dredge" the meat 
with flour? 

6. What is veal ? mutton ? lamb ? pork ? 

7. What is "leaf lard"? 

8. How is sausage made ? 

9. Do we need to eat meat three times a day ? 

10. What foods can sometimes be substituted for meat in 
the diet? 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

SERVE A DINNER 

Suggested Menu : Broiled pork chops 

Baked stuffed potatoes 
Creamed onions 
Baking-powder biscuit 
Banana salad 



130 FOODS AND COOKERY 

Estimate the cost of the meal. 
Discuss order of work. 
What dishes will be used ? 



SOUPS 

When meat, bone and gristle are boiled in water, 
the liquid that remains after the boiling is called 
stock. This is used in making soup. 

When stock stands, it sometimes forms a jelly- 
like mass that is called gelatine. This gelatine is 
formed from the connective tissue which is present 
in the meat, bones and gristle, and which is soluble 
in hot water. 

Commercial gelatine is usually sold in small pack- 
ages. It is made from the skin, ligaments and bones 
of animals, and is largely used in making desserts 
and salads. Gelatine is a form of protein, and has 
some food value. 

When meat is prepared for making soups, it is cut 
into small pieces and put into cold water to allow 
the juice to soak out of the muscle tubes as much 
as it will. The extractives are also drawn out of 
the meat by the water. 

Meat stock alone contains very little food value, 
but by adding milk, vegetables, or bits of meat, we 
make it much more valuable as a food. Soups made 
from plain meat stock have a value, however, be- 
cause the extractives cause the digestive juices to 
become more active, and it is for this purpose 
that clear soups are served at the beginning of 
a meal. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 131 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

SOUPS AND GELATINE 

SOUP STOCK 

Soup stock may be made from fresh meat, bone and 
gristle, or it may be made from trimmings and left-over 
meats. There may be several kinds of meat cooked to- 
gether to make the stock. Some housekeepers keep a 
" soup-kettle " in which scraps of meat, bone and trim- 
mings are placed. When there is enough in the kettle, 
water is added and the stock made. Meat scraps must 
not be kept too long, however. 

Bouillon is the cleared stock made from beef. Consomme 
is the cleared stock made from two or three kinds of 
meat. 

Soup stock is used, in combination with other liquids, 
in soups and gravies, or with vegetables in vegetable soup. 
If fresh meats are used in making stock, the meat itself 
should be used in some other way, because it contains 
about as much protein as fresh meat. It is tasteless, and 
must be well seasoned or used with highly flavored vege- 
tables. This meat may be used in croquettes, hash, meat 
pies, and in casserole of vegetables and meat. 

BEEF STOCK 

2 lb. beef 2 qt. cold water 

• 1 tsp. salt 

Cut the meat into small pieces ; crack the bone (let the 
butcher do this when you buy fresh meat) ; pour the 
water over this and let stand one hour. Simmer for three 
hours. Strain and let cool. For bouillon remove the 
fat from the top of the stock and strain the stock through 
cheesecloth ; season with a bay leaf or cloves, pepper and 
salt, and re-heat. Sometimes egg-white is used for clear- 
ing bouillon, using white and shell. How could this be 
done? 



132 FOODS AND COOKERY 

VEGETABLE SOUP 

2 qt. stock 1 carrot, diced 

1 onion, sliced 1 turnip, diced 

1 stalk of celery or dried celery leaves Salt and pepper 

Any left-over vegetables may be used. Barley, maca- 
roni, or rice are sometimes added. Add the vegetables 
to the stock. Simmer gently until vegetables are heated 
through or cooked. 
Experiments : 1. Examine various kinds of gelatine that 

can be purchased in the store. How do they differ? 

What is the price per ounce ? 

2. Place one fourth teaspoon of gelatine in one table- 
spoon cold water, let stand five minutes. What has 
happened ? Add two tablespoons boiling water. Does 
the gelatine dissolve? 

3. Add two tablespoons of boiling water to one fourth 
teaspoon gelatine. What happens? What method 
should be used in making gelatine dishes ? 

PERFECTION SALAD 

§ c. sugar 2 tbsp. granulated gelatine 

\ c. cold water 1 tsp. salt 

\ c. vinegar 2 c. sliced celery 

2 c. boiling water 1 c. shredded cabbage 

Juice of one lemon 3 pimentos, chopped 

Soak the gelatine in the cold water for a few minutes. 
Add the boiling water and sugar. Stir until all the 
gelatine and sugar are dissolved. Add lemon juice, vinegar 
and salt. Let cool until mixture begins to "set", then 
stir in vegetables. Wet the inside of individual molds 
with cold water. Pour in gelatine mixture. Keep in 
cold place until " set." Remove from mold, serve on 
lettuce with mayonnaise dressing. 

LEMON JELLY 

1 tbsp. granulated gelatine \ c. sugar 

\ c. cold water \\ c. boiling water 

\ c. lemon juice \ tsp. salt 



FOODS AND COOKERY 133 

Follow directions for mixing given under Perfection 
Salad. Pour mixture at once into large mold. When it is 
cold and " set ", remove from mold and garnish with 
whipped cream. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What is "stock"? 

2. Give directions for making " stock." 

3. In what ways is meat stock used ? 

4. How is bouillon prepared ? 

5. Of what value in the diet are clear soups ? 

6. Why should the meat left from stock be used ? 

7. In what ways may this meat be used ? 

8. From what is commercial gelatine made? 

9. Why should the vegetables not be added to the gelatine 
mixture until it begins to "set"? 

10. Make a plan for a meal in which it would be proper to 
serve vegetable soup. 

11. Make a dinner plan, using lemon jelly as the dessert. 

12. Make a plan for a meal in which it would be correct to 
serve Perfection Salad. 



POULTRY, GAME AND FISH 

Poultry is the name given to domestic birds suit- 
able for food, such as chicken, turkey, goose and 
duck. Game is the name given to wild birds and 
animals that are hunted for food, such as quail, 
partridges, wild ducks and geese. Pigeons and 
squabs are classed as game. In the United States 
game has become very scarce and is little used for 
food. 

Chicken is used more than any other kind of 
poultry, and can be purchased in the market at 
any season of the year. A spring chicken is a 
chicken not more than four months old. A broiler 
is a young chicken that weighs about a pound, or a 



134 FOODS AND COOKERY 

pound and a half. In selecting chickens in the mar- 
ket, it is necessary to know how to tell the age. A 
young chicken will have smooth yellow legs, and 
the end of the breast bone will be soft and flexible, 
while an older bird has scaly legs and a firm breast 
bone. In a dressed bird, a large number of small 
pinfeathers indicates that it is young, while long 
hairs in place of pinfeathers show age in the bird. 

The breast or white meat of chicken is especially 
tender because it is composed of short fibers with 
a small amount of connective tissue and very little 
fat. Because of the structure of the meat and its 
low percentage of fat, white meat is easily digested, 
and is therefore often used in invalid cookery. 

Poultry and game are much like meat in food 
value, and when either is served it takes the place 
of meat in the meal. 

FISH 

The flesh of fish is not unlike the flesh of meat, 
and can be used as a meat substitute. 

In some sections of this country fish can be 
obtained fresh, and is best when cooked soon after 
being caught. Fresh fish is more difficult to keep 
in good condition than meat, and is therefore not 
easily shipped. When fresh fish can be purchased, 
it should be used often to vary the diet. Many 
kinds of fish are canned, dried, salted or smoked, 
and in these forms are found in every local market ; 
but fresh fish is not easily obtained inland, — in 
many cases because there is no demand for it. 

Oysters are one form of shellfish used as food. 
The oyster is protected by a hard shell covering. 
This shell is usually removed before the oyster is 



FOODS AND COOKERY 135 

sold in the market. The name "Blue Point ", and 
other special names, formerly indicated the locality 
where the oysters were grown, but this is no longer 
the case. 

Oysters stand shipping well, and are sold in most 
localities during the winter months at least. While 
oysters have little food value, they are much liked 
for their flavor. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
POULTRY AND FISH 

To dress a chicken : 1. Remove feathers by pulling them 
out, after plunging the fowl into boiling water and hold- 
ing it there for a moment or two. Fowls are sometimes 
picked without scalding, if the work can be done im- 
mediately after they are killed. 

2. Singe the plucked fowl by holding it in a flame 
of gas or burning paper, being sure that all parts are 
exposed during the process so that all hairs are removed. 

3. Cut off the head, if it has not been removed. 
The neck may be removed by pushing back the skin 
and cutting it off. 

4. Remove the feet by cutting and breaking the 
legs at the joints. 

5. Make an incision one inch above the vent and 
crosswise between the legs. Draw out the intestines 
and other organs carefully, cutting away the vent- 
Remove from the mass the heart, liver and gizzard, 
being careful not to break the gall bladder which lies 
under the liver. Cut the gall bladder away carefully. 

6. Remove the skin from around the gizzard ; open 
the gizzard and remove the inner skin and contents. 

7. Wash the liver, gizzard and heart, squeezing the 
latter to remove any blood. These organs are known 
as the " giblets." 



136 FOODS AND COOKERY 

8. The crop and windpipe may be removed at the 
neck. Do this without breaking the crop, or tearing 
the skin at the neck. 

9. Remove all pinfeathers with a sharp-pointed, 
small knife. Remove the oil bag from the tail. 

10. Wash the chicken well in cold water, both inside 
and out. Dry with a cloth. The fowl is now ready 
to be used for baking. 

1 1 . When a fowl is to be cut into pieces, as for stewing, 
it is usually convenient to remove the wings and legs 
before removing the intestines and other organs from 
the body. 

Poultry should always be allowed to stand several 
hours after dressing before it is cooked. 

STEWED CHICKEN 

Place the pieces of chicken in a kettle and cover with 
boiling water ; boil a few minutes ; then add one table- 
spoon salt, and cook slowly until the meat is tender when 
pierced with a fork. Remove chicken to a warm platter 
and set in a warm place. Add milk to the liquid in which 
the chicken was cooked. Thicken with flour, and cook 
for five minutes. Pour over chicken and serve. 

Dumplings may be served with the stewed chicken if 
desired. These are cooked by placing them on top of the 
pieces of chicken in the kettle, keeping the dough out of 
the water as far as possible. Cover the kettle tightly. 
Cook twenty minutes. Remove dumplings and chicken ; 
thicken gravy and serve. Dumplings of this kind are 
made like baking-powder biscuits, except that the dough 
is not so stiff. 

SCALLOPED OYSTERS 

1 pt. oysters 4 tbsp. butter 

3 c. bread crumbs or Milk 

2\ c. cracker crumbs \ tsp. pepper 
\ tsp. salt 



FOODS AND COOKERY 137 

Look over the oysters carefully, removing any bits of 
shell or other refuse. Drain the liquor from the oysters 
by straining it through a wire sieve. Wash the oysters 
by dipping the sieve into water, or by allowing water 
from the faucet to run through them. Melt the butter 
in a frying-pan ; add the crumbs, salt and pepper. Place 
a layer of crumbs in a buttered baking-dish, then a layer 
of oysters, then a layer of crumbs, until the dish is filled, 
finishing with a layer of crumbs on top. Add the liquor 
left from draining the oysters, and just enough milk to 
show on the top at the side of the dish. Bake in a moderate 
oven forty to fifty minutes. 

FRIED OR SAUTEED FISH 

Clean the fish carefully, being sure that all the scales 
are removed. Split the fish on the under side, lengthwise, 
and clean the inside carefully. A large fish can then be 
cut into pieces of the desired length ; a small fish need not 
be cut. Roll each piece in equal parts of com meal and 
flour, or in egg and bread crumbs as for croquettes. Fry 
in deep fat or saute" in the frying-pan until tender. Tomato 
sauce may be served with the fish if desired. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What is included under the name poultry? 

2. What is included under game ? 

3. What is a " spring chicken"? a broiler? 

4. How may the age of a fowl be determined ? 

5. What is the white meat of a chicken ? 

6. Is it tender or tough ? Explain the structure. 

7. What foods should not be used in a meal when chicken is 
served ? 

8. In what forms may fish be found in every market? 

9. What kinds of fish, fit for food, are caught in the rivers 
and lakes in this locality? 

10. In what ways have you seen fresh fish served, other than 
fried or sauteed ? 

11. What is the price of oysters per quart ? per pint? 



138 FOODS AND COOKERY 

12. How are oysters kept at the store? 

13. Is it economical to serve scalloped oysters and meat in 
the same meal? Why? 

DESSERTS 

Desserts may be divided into four large groups : 
(1) fruits, either fresh, dried, or cooked, (2) puddings, 
(3) pastry, (4) frozen desserts ; as a fifth, cakes may 
be added. 

Elaborate desserts, which require a great length 
of time spent in preparation, should not be used often 
in most households, because simple desserts taste 
just as well and the housekeeper may use her time 
for more useful work, or for recreation. 

In choosing a dessert to use at the end of a meal, 
one must consider what foods have already been 
served in the other courses. If everyone has had 
all the food needed and feels satisfied before dessert 
is served, it is then a wise plan to omit dessert. 
When a dessert is served after a heavy meal it should 
consist of fruit or a gelatine pudding, rather than of 
pie or a rich pudding. When pie is served it should 
follow a meal in which little fat and protein have 
been eaten. No one should eat pie three times a 
day, nor every day. 

A pie should have a light, flaky, tender crust that 
is thoroughly baked. Pie crust must be chewed 
thoroughly, since even the best is hard to digest. 
It is easier to make tender pie crust from pastry 
flour, because that contains less gluten and more 
starch than bread flour. Bread flour may be used, 
however. Many kinds of fat are used in pie crust, 
such as lard, butter, vegetable fats and oils. Fat 
makes the crust " short" and flaky, and is often 



FOODS AND COOKERY 139 

called " shortening." The crust is made tender by 
careful handling, and by folding and rolling several 
times so that air is folded into the dough. This 
air, and the steam formed from the water used in 
the mixture, expand the dough during baking and 
make the pie crust light. 

Desserts containing eggs and milk should be served 
only at the end of a meal when little protein has 
been eaten in the other courses. 

Frozen desserts may be made, mainly of cream, 
milk, eggs and sugar, such as plain ice cream, 
French ice cream, or mousse ; or they may be made 
of water, fruit juice and sugar, such as sherbet, 
water ice or frappe. 

Desserts are frozen by the use of ice mixed with 
coarse or "rock" salt in the proportion of one part 
of salt to three parts of cracked ice. When ice 
melts, heat is absorbed from the surrounding ma- 
terials. When salt is added, the ice melts at a 
lower temperature and a greater amount of heat is 
absorbed. The freezing of the mixture, in a can 
surrounded by ice, is brought about because the 
ice and salt absorb the heat from the contents of 
the can. 

In freezing a mixture that is to be of a fine smooth 
texture, it is necessary to turn the crank of the 
freezer slowly and steadily. Ices and sherbets do 
not need such careful beating, and mousse is not 
beaten at all after it is put into the freezer. 

HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS 

Plan a dinner, consisting of meat, vegetables and 
salad, that is suitable for the season. 



140 FOODS AND COOKERY 

Plan one consisting of meat, vegetables, salad 
and dessert, suitable for the season. 

Plan a " one-dish" meal. 

Would other foods need to be added for the small 
child ? If so, what would you add ? 

Plan a dinner in which custard pie might be served. 

The following dinner will be served during the 
next laboratory period : 

Swiss steak with gravy 

Candied sweet potatoes 

Salad : green beans, chopped onion and parsley, with 

French dressing 
Lemon gelatine with whipped cream 

Make a plan for preparing the dinner. What 
proportions of each recipe should be made for the 
number to be served ? 

Make a list of the food, with the amount that 
will be needed for the meal. Give the order in 
which the food is to be prepared. What dishes will 
be needed for serving the meal in the English style ? 
Bring the plan to class for discussion. 

Find in the dictionary or encyclopedia what you 
can about spices, such as nutmeg, cloves, cinnamon, 
mustard and ginger ; also about pepper and salt. 
How is vinegar made? From what is extract of 
vanilla made ? 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

DESSERTS 

PLAIN PASTRY 

1 c. flour \ tsp. salt 

\ c. lard Ice water 



FOODS AND COOKERY 141 

Sift the flour before measuring it. Add salt to flour, 
and sift again. Cut in shortening with two knives. Add 
just enough water to make a dough that can be rolled. 
Chill, roll out, fold, roll again, repeating two or three 
times. 

When a crust is to be baked without a filling, the dough 
may be placed on the outside of the pie-pan turned up- 
side down. Prick the crust well with a fork to keep it 
from blistering. A pie crust should be baked in a hot oven. 
Care must be taken, however, not to burn the edges. 

Let members of the class suggest fillings for a one-crust 
pie. Perhaps some can bring a good recipe that may be 
used in class. 

Fruit pies are much easier digested if they are made 
with only a top crust. The fruit is placed in a deep pie- 
pan of earthenware, enamel ware, or glass. The crust 
is then placed over the top, pressed down well on the edge, 
and baked. When two crusts are used, the lower crust 
must be baked thoroughly and the pie should be removed 
from the pan as soon as it is taken from the oven. The 
steam which collects on the pan has a tendency to make 
the lower crust soggy. 

This is a good pudding to use for Thanksgiving or 
Christmas : 

STEAMED PUDDING 

2 c. bread crumbs \ c. suet 

\ tsp. soda \ e. molasses 

\ tsp. cloves 1 egg 

\ tsp. cinnamon \ c. milk 

\ tsp. salt \ c. currants 
J c. raisins 

Mix a little flour with the suet, then chop it in a chop- 
ping-bowl with a chopping-knife, or put it through the 
meat-grinder. Beat the egg and add the milk. Wash 
the raisins and currants in a wire strainer by running cold 
water through them ; dry on a towel ; cut the raisins in 
halves. Mix the raisins and currants with a little flour, 



142 FOODS AND COOKERY 

as this makes them mix with the dough more easily. Add 
crumbs, spices, soda, currants, raisins and suet to the 
milk-and-egg mixture. Then add the molasses. Pour 
into a well greased pudding mold. Steam two hours. 
Remove lid of pudding mold, place pudding in oven and 
bake for a few minutes. Serve with any kind of sauce 
desired. 

HARD SAUCE 

I c. butter 1 tsp. vanilla 

1 c. powdered sugar 

Cream the butter and add sugar gradually, beating 
until the sauce is light and creamy; add flavoring. Set 
in a cool place until served. 

PUDDING SAUCE 

\ c. sugar 3 tbsp. butter 

f c. water \ tsp. vanilla 

A little cinnamon or nutmeg may be added 

Boil together until the sauce is of the desired thickness. 
This may be varied by pouring the hot liquid over a well 
beaten egg. Beat mixture thoroughly. Why should the 
mixture be poured over the egg slowly ? 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. Into what groups may desserts be divided? 

2. Should elaborate desserts be served often in most homes? 
Why? 

3. When should pie be eaten ? 

4. What is ' ' shortening ' ' ? 

5. State the characteristics of a good pie crust. 

6. What makes the crust "light"? 

7. What kind of desserts may be served at the end of a heavy 
meal? 

8. What materials are used for freezing desserts? in what 
proportions ? 

9. Explain the freezing of ice cream. 

10. How is a smooth texture obtained in a frozen mixture ? 



FOODS AND COOKERY 143 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
SERVE A DINNER 

Suggested Menu for a company dinner : 

Bouillon, wafers 

Swiss steak with gravy 

Candied sweet potatoes 

Salad : green beans, chopped onion and parsley 

Lemon gelatine with whipped cream 

Date cakes 
Plan other company dinners. 
Plan a menu for a Thanksgiving dinner. 
Plan a menu for a Christmas dinner. 
Discuss the cost of all meals served. 

THE DAILY MEALS OF THE FAMILY 
GROUP 

The three meals that are eaten daily by the family 
group have been studied separately, but before leav- 
ing the subject it is necessary to consider the making 
of the plans for the day and for the week. One 
meal may be planned correctly, but the diet is not 
well balanced unless the three meals for each and 
every day furnish the proper amount of foodstuffs 
for body-building and for warmth and energy. 

How, then, shall one know when enough of the 
right kind of food is eaten? Persons who have 
studied the science of nutrition have set standards 
to follow that are a great help to the housekeeper. 

Heat and energy furnished by a given amount of 
food are measured by the scientist, and the unit of 
measure that he uses is called a Calorie. A Calorie 
is the amount of heat required to raise the tempera- 



144 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



ture of one pound of water four degrees Fahrenheit, 
or a kilogram of water one degree centigrade. 

By placing food in a food calorimeter, a machine 
designed for the purpose, it is possible to measure 




Serving the Dinner with a Tea-cart 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



145 



how much heat will be produced from a certain 
amount of food when it is burned, or oxidized. In 
a machine called a respiration calorimeter, it is 
possible to measure the amount of warmth and energy 
used by a person in doing work, or in merely keeping 
the body warm and active. Even when quiet, a 
certain amount of energy is being used by the body, 
as for example in breathing. 

Since, then, the scientist is able to measure in 
Calories the amount of heat required by the body, 
and is also able to measure how many Calories are 
furnished by portions of different foods, it becomes 
possible for him to set a standard for the daily re- 
quirements of food. This requirement varies with 
the age, the size, the weight and the work being 
done by the person eating the food. 

The following is one standard of food requirements : 

Warmth and Energy Requirements for One Day 



Member of Family 



Mai* . 
Woman 
Baby . 
Boy . 
Boy . 
Girl . 
Girl . 
Woman 



Age 



40 

37 
1 
3 

12 
6 
9 

90 



Weight 

IN 

Pounds 



154 
125 
21 
35 
75 
41 
56 
110 



Total 
Calories 
Required 



2770 
2250 
840 
1400 
2250 
1394 
1848 
1500 



Total 



14252 



A list of the number of Calories furnished by a 
pound of the different foods has been made and 



146 FOODS AND COOKERY 

published in a bulletin issued by the Office of Ex- 
periment Stations, U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, Washington, D. C. It is entitled "The 
Chemical Composition of American Food Materials." 
It is difficult, however, to learn from this bulletin, 
without the use of a great deal of arithmetic, just 
how much food should be used to furnish a certain 
number of Calories, and for this reason there have 
been prepared convenient tables of standard portions 
of the dishes ordinarily used. A ' ' standard portion " 
is the amount needed to furnish 100 Calories and it is 
sometimes called a "100-Calorie portion." 

At the end of this section will be found a list of 
100-Calorie portions of foods. 

The following method should be used when calcu- 
lating the number of Calories being served in a meal : 

1. Make a list of the foods to be used. 

2. Decide on the size of the portion of each to be 
served — as, for example, whether a whole orange 
or one half orange is the amount to be used. 

3. Look at the table of " 100-Calorie portions " and 
find the size of the portion of each food needed to 
furnish 100 Calories to the body. 

4. If the portion furnishing 100 Calories is more 
than you expect to serve, then multiply 100 by one 
half, one third, or by whatever proportion of the " 100- 
Calorie portion" is to be served, to determine the 
number of Calories being supplied. For example, 
if one cup of cooked oatmeal is a "100-Calorie por- 
tion" and only a half cup of cooked oatmeal is being 
served, it will be necessary to multiply 100 by ^ to 
determine the number of Calories served. 

5. If the portion furnishing 100 Calories is less 
than the amount served, then 100 must be multiplied 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



147 



by the number of times the portion is to be used to 
make the desired serving. For example, one half 
baked apple is a "100-Calorie portion", but if a 
whole baked apple is to be served, it will be necessary 
to multiply 100 by 2 to determine the number of 
Calories supplied. 

The following is an example of the way of working 
out the number of Calories served for breakfast : 

Breakfast 



Food 



Orange 

Whole milk to drink . . 
Oatmeal, cooked . . . 
Cream, this for oatmeal 
Sugar for oatmeal . . 
Bread 



Total Calories 



Amount Served 



f orange 

£ measuring cup 

f CUp 

icup 

\ scant teaspoonful 
1 slice, \ in. thick 



Calories 



50 
100 

50 
100 

25 
100 



425 



Each meal may be worked out in the same way 
for each member of the family. The total amount 
of the foods needed for the entire family may be 
found by adding together the individual portions. 
No housekeeper will need to work this out every 
day, because after doing it several times she can 
estimate by the amount of food she is serving whether 
enough Calories are being supplied in the diet. 

Other necessary points to be observed in planning 
the day's diet are : 

1 . Furnish variety in the diet by serving different 
kinds of food or by changing the method of prepara- 
tion. 

2. It is necessary to have all the foodstuffs repre- 



148 FOODS AND COOKERY 

sented in the day's diet, and it is best to have them 
in good proportions in each meal. 

3. An attractive meal is enjoyed by the family. 
To be attractive it must be well cooked and served, 
and the foods combined properly in regard to flavor 
and appearance. 

4. It is always wise to consider the cost, and to 
remember that the most expensive foods often have 
no greater food value than cheaper kinds. One 
fourth to one half of the average income has to be 
spent for food, and when the housekeeper is careless 
in selecting the food, more money than is necessary 
may be spent. 

5. It is necessary to change the diet to suit the 
season of the year. The body requires less food 
for warmth in summer than in winter, and there is 
less used for muscular energy, therefore foods con- 
taining large amounts of fat are not required. Some 
of the foods to be avoided in summer are hot breads, 
fat meats, pastries, rich cakes, sauces and gravies. 

6. It is very important to know that children need 
simple, well cooked foods, that milk is essential for 
every child, that butter is better for the child than 
a butter substitute because the butter contains 
vitamines, that fruits and cereals are essential, and 
that eggs, milk and cereals are better to use than 
a large quantity of meat. 

7. No one can balance meals properly without 
knowing which foods contain the foodstuffs needed. 

HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS 

Plan meals that might be used by your family for 
a day in summer. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 149 

Plan the meals for a day in winter. 
Make a list of groups of vegetables that may 
correctly be served together. 

Estimate the cost of the following meal for six 
persons : 

Broiled mutton chops 

Baked stuffed potatoes 

Tomato salad with French dressing 

Sliced peaches with cream 

Sponge cake 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
FROZEN DESSERTS 
VANILLA ICE CREAM 

1 qt. cream 1 tsp. vanilla 

f c. sugar 

Wash and scald the can, cover and dasher of the freezer. 
Carefully place the can in the freezer. Place the ice in a 
heavy cloth sack and pound until it is broken into very 
small pieces. Crush the rock salt or coarse salt. Pack 
the freezer with alternating layers of ice and salt, until the 
ice is just below the top of the can. Have the ice-cream 
mixture ready and pour it into the can ; place the dasher 
in the can ; cover ; add ice until the can is covered. Turn 
the dasher slowly and steadily until it will not turn any 
more. Remove ice and salt from top of can; wipe off 
carefully; remove lid from can; take out dasher care- 
fully ; cover can and put a stopper in hole in cover. Drain 
off all water from the tub, repack with ice and salt, using 
a little less salt (about four parts ice to one part salt). 
Cover the can with ice ; cover freezer ; set in cool place 
and let stand several hours. 

If no freezer is available, two pans may be used for 
freezing, placing a small container in a larger one, and 
packing the ice and salt around it. The stirring is done 



150 FOODS AND COOKERY 

with a spoon. This method of freezing is successful only 
when a small quantity of ice cream is being made. 

LEMON ICE 

4 c. water 2 c. sugar 

£ c. lemon juice 

Boil sugar and water together for five minutes. Add 
lemon juice. Strain if not clear. Freeze. 

CHOCOLATE MOUSSE 

1 pt. cream 4 oz. chocolate 

\ c. powdered sugar \ tsp. salt 

Cut the chocolate into small pieces, or grate it. Place in 
a small saucepan in a pan of boiling water until it is melted. 
Whip the cream ; add sugar, salt and melted chocolate. 
Turn into a mold, and pack the mold in a pan of ice and 
salt. Let it stand five hours. 

Smaller proportions of the recipes may be made if 
desired ; then the freezing will require less time. 

100-CALORIE PORTIONS 

While the mixtures are freezing, let the class examine 
100-Calorie portions of the following foods that have been 
prepared by the teacher: eggs, beefsteak, bacon, bread, 
butter, oatmeal, milk, cheese, potatoes, dried beans, 
apples, onions, carrots, rice, macaroni, olive oil, cotton- 
seed oil. 

What portion of each of these foods would usually make 
one serving? Calculate how many Calories would be 
furnished by the following meal, using the table at the 
end of this section: 

Broiled beefsteak 

Baked potato 

Lettuce with French dressing 

Baked apple 



FOODS AND COOKERY 151 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. Define the term "Calorie." 

2. What is a "standard portion"? By what other name is 
it sometimes called ? 

3. How do scientists determine how many Calories we need 
each day? 

4. Which of the foodstuffs yield warmth and energy ? Which 
of these are used by the body in other ways than for the pro- 
duction of warmth and energy? 

5. How should the foodstuffs be distributed in the meals 
eaten in one day? 

6. Can you explain why the boy twelve years old requires a 
greater number of Calories per day than the woman ninety years 
old? 

7. Are the following meals for a day well planned ? Explain 
the reason for your answer. 



(1) 


J3REAK.FASTS /q\ 


Eggs and bacon 


Baked apple 


Cocoa 


Oatmeal 


Hot baking-powder biscuit Toast 




Cocoa 


(1) 


Luncheons ^) 


Cream soup 


Bouillon 


Cheese strata 


Apple salad with cooked dressing 


Salmon salad 


Lemon gelatine 


Bread and butter 


Bread and butter 


a) 


Dinners a^ 


Roast beef 


Baked stuffed potatoes 


Baked beans 


Buttered carrots 


Lettuce with French dressing Fresh celery 


Rice pudding 


Apple pie 


Bread and butter 


Cake 



8. What foods is it well to avoid in hot weather ? Why ? 

9. Name some foods that may be served to small children 
some that should not be served. 



152 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



10. Why is butter better for the child than a butter substitute ? 

11. State rules, regarding the purchase of food, that will help 
reduce the amount of money spent. 

12. What are the characteristics of an attractive meal? 



100-Calorie Portions of Uncooked Foods 



Food 



Apple .... 
Bacon .... 
Banana . 
Beef, round steak 
Butter . . . 
Carrot . . . 

Cabbage . . . 
Corn on cob 
Cottonseed oil . 
Cheese, American 
Cream, 40 % . 
Eggs .... 
Flour, white 
Lettuce . . . 
Macaroni 

Milk, whole . . 
Mutton chops . 
Navy beans . 
Oatmeal . . . 
Olive oil . 
Onions 

Orange . . . 
Peach .... 
Peas, green . 
Rice .... 
Sweet potato 
Sugar .... 
Tomato, fresh . 



Weight 

IN 

Ounces 



7.4 
0.6 
5.5 
2.2 
0.5 
10.0 

11.2 
9.0 
0.4 
0.8 

2.4 

1.0 

18.5 

1.0 

5.0 
1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
0.5 
7.0 
9.5 

10.5 
3.5 
1.0 
3.6 
0.9 

15.5 



Measure 



1 

slice 

1 

1 serving 

1 tablespoon 
1 

5 cups 

2 ears 

1 tablespoon 
cube 

2 tablespoons 
1 

4| tablespoons 
2 heads 
I cup 

f cup 

1 chop 

2 tablespoons 
J cup 

1 tablespoon 
4 



cup 

tablespoons 
potato 
tablespoons 
or 3 



Remarks 



large size 

4| by l£ by -fa inches 

large size 

2^ by 2 f by \ inches 

length 6|, diameter 2 

inches 
shredded 
6 inches long 

1| inches 

very large 

large size 

broken into 1-inch 
pieces 



dried 
rolled 

medium-sized 
large 

medium-sized 
shelled 

medium-sized 

scant 

medium-sized 



FOODS AND COOKERY 

100-Calorie Portions of Cooked Foods 



153 





Weight 






Food 


in 
Ounces 


Measure 


Remarks 


Apple, baked . . . 


2.3 


2 apple 


large size, 2 tbsp. sugar 


Baking-powder biscuit 


1.2 


2 biscuits 


small 


Bread, white, baker's . 


1.0 


1 slice 


f inch thick 


Corn, canned . . . 


3.5 


1 serving 




French dressing 


0.6 


1| tablespoons 




Mashed potatoes . . 


3.5 


I cup 


scant 


Mayonnaise dressing 


0.5 


1 tablespoon 




Potato, baked . . . 


3.0 


1 


medium-sized 


Oatmeal, cooked . . 


7.9 


1 cup 




Saltine cracker . 


0.8 


8 wafers 




Shredded wheat . . 


0.9 


1 biscuit 




Sponge cake 


0.9 


piece 


\\ by 1^ by 2 inches 



THE PRESERVATION OF FOODS 

Many kinds of fruit and vegetables, all meat, fish 
and poultry, soon spoil unless preserved in some 
way. The spoiling of food is brought about by 
molds, yeast and bacteria, which are called micro- 
organisms. Yeast and bacteria are so small that 
they can be seen only through a powerful microscope, 
but molds can be seen without using a microscope. 
All of these microorganisms require food, warmth 
and moisture for growth. They find food and 
moisture in many of our foods, and because they 
live in the food it changes and perhaps spoils. 

Food is preserved either by killing the micro- 
organisms or by hindering their growth. There are 
four methods used : (1) by keeping food at a low 
temperature, (2) by drying, (3) by the use of 
preservatives and (4) by sterilization. 

Foods in cold storage are kept at such a low temper- 
ature that the growth of the microorganisms is 



154 FOODS AND COOKERY 

hindered. Such foods as meat, eggs, green vegetables 
and fruits may be kept in this way for different 
lengths of time without spoiling. 

Drying is used for preserving certain fruits and 
vegetables, meat and fish. The dried product 
lacks the moisture required by the microorganisms 




Cold-pack Canning 
Packing asparagus into the jar. 

for growth ; therefore their action in the food is 
hindered. 

Preservatives are materials used to hinder the 
growth or to kill microorganisms. Sugar in quan- 
tity, salt, vinegar and spices are harmless preserva- 
tives. Saltpeter and smoke are also used. There 
are also harmful substances that will preserve the 



FOODS AND COOKERY 155 

food, but which are not healthful to use, such as 
formaldehyde, benzoic and salicylic acids. 

The best method for preserving food is to kill the 
microorganisms by the use of heat. This process 
is called sterilization. In canning, the food is 
sterilized and then sealed in sterilized containers so 
that no more microorganisms can reach it from the 
air. Fruits, vegetables, meats, fish and poultry may 
be preserved by this method. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

PRESERVATION OF FRUIT 

MARMALADES 

The general rule for the proportion of ingredients in 
marmalades is as follows : 

Use one half as much sugar as fruit, by weight. 
Use three cups of water to each pound of sugar. 
Make orange marmalade : 

ORANGE MARMALADE 

1| doz. oranges Water 

6 lemons Sugar 

Wash fruit ; slice in very thin pieces without removing 
skins ; remove seeds ; cut into small pieces. Weigh the 
fruit, calculate the sugar that is needed ; calculate the 
water that is needed. Place the water over the fruit and 
let it stand twenty-four hours. Boil gently for two hours, 
add sugar, and boil until the syrup is as thick as desired 
(usually about one hour). Place in small sterilized jars 
or glasses ; set aside to cool. 

When the marmalade is cool, melt paraffin and pour 
over the top ; cover the jars or glasses with lids or paper. 

GRAPE CONSERVE 

2 qts. grape juice 2 lbs. seeded raisins 

3 lbs. granulated sugar 1 lb. English walnut meats 



156 FOODS AND COOKERY 

Boil the grape juice with the raisins and sugar, until it 
thickens when a drop is placed on a cool saucer. Add 
walnuts, chopped fine. Cook a few minutes ; place in 
sterilized jars or glasses. Cover the conserve with paraffin 
when it is cold. 

GRAPE JUICE 

10 lbs. Concord grapes 2 qts. water 

2 lbs. sugar 

Wash the grapes and remove them from the stems, add 
the water ; boil until the skins are soft. Strain through a 
wet jelly-bag. Re-heat the juice and add the sugar; 
boil for two or three minutes. Pour into hot sterilized 
jars or bottles; seal. When corks are used in the top 
of bottles, seal by using paraffin. This juice may be 
made in the fall, and the conserve made during the winter. 

The grapes left in the jelly-bag may be run through a 
wire sieve, and the pulp added to the grape conserve, if 
the conserve is to be made at the same time as the grape 
juice. If not, the pulp may have sugar added and be 
boiled until thickened, and used as grape butter. 

SWEET PICKLED PEACHES 

7 lbs. peaches (after stones are 2 oz. cinnamon 

removed) 1 qt. vinegar 

3| lbs. sugar 2 oz. cloves 

Make a syrup of the sugar, vinegar, stick cinnamon and 
cloves ; boil until it is thickened. Cut peaches in halves. 
Add peaches and cook until they are tender. Remove 
each piece with a spoon and pack in a sterilized jar ; boil 
the syrup until it is thick, and pour it over the fruit. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What causes the spoiling of fruits, vegetables and meats? 

2. How is food preserved ? 

3. What foods are kept in cold storage? 

4. What foods may be dried ? 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



157 



5. Name the materials that are used to preserve food. 

6. What is the method of preservation used in making orange 
marmalade? sweet pickled peaches? 

7. What is meant by sterilization? 

8. What is a sterilized jar? (See section on Jelly-making.) 

9. Why must the sterilized jars be used while they are hot, 
and without wiping them out with a towel? 

10. Which method of preservation is the best to use for food 
when it must be kept for long periods ? 



CANNING 

Canning may be done in two ways : 
1. Open-kettle method, when the food is cooked 
until it is tender and sterilized, and is then put in 




Types of Canners 
Left to right : hot-water bath, steam cooker, pressure cooker. 

sterilized jars and immediately sealed. This is the 
oldest method of canning foods. 

2. Cold-pack method, when the food is packed in 
jars, the jar filled with liquid, — which may be 
syrup, water, or broth, — the rubber adjusted to 
the can, the cover placed in position, but only 



158 FOODS AND COOKERY 

partly screwed or clamped on, and the jar placed in 
a cooker in which the food will be sterilized and 
cooked until tender. The jar is then removed from 
the cooker and sealed at once. 

Cookers used for canning by the cold-pack process 
are (1) the steam-pressure cooker, (2) the steam 
cooker and (3) the hot-water bath cooker, the last 
being the most commonly used. This cooker can 
be made at home by using a wash-boiler or other 
container that has a lid and a false bottom, or rack, 




Types of Jars Used in Canning 

to raise the jars at least three quarters of an inch 
or an inch off the bottom of the container. The 
steam-pressure cooker and the steam cooker are 
manufactured in different types. 

Canning can be done in the shortest time with the 
pressure cooker, but the product is no better than 
that secured with the hot-water bath. Both the 
steam-pressure cooker and the steam cooker can be 
used for other kinds of cookery than canning, which 
makes them comparatively less expensive. 

There are numerous types of jars that may be 
used, and any type is satisfactory when the cover 



FOODS AND COOKERY 159 

fits well and is in a sanitary condition. Many old 
screw-top jars are not fit to use unless new lids are 
purchased, because dirt cannot be cleaned from the 
crevices when it has collected in the old lids. In 
buying new jars, it is better to select those with glass 
lids and a large "mouth" or opening. Tin cans 
may be used instead of glass, but any food that 
will keep in tin will be more easily and safely canned 
in glass. Tin is used in commercial canning, be- 
cause tin containers can be more easily packed and 
shipped. 

Good can-rubbers are necessary if the products 
placed in the cans are to keep well. Rubbers should 




Attractive Jars of Fruits and Vegetables 

be tested before being used, by stretching them to 
see if they will break, and by doubling them together 
and pressing at the fold to see whether the rubber 
will crack. Good rubbers will not be affected by 
either test. 

Select for canning, firm fresh fruit that is not over- 
ripe, vegetables that are fresh and crisp, and meat 
that is in perfect condition. If poor products are 
used, the results will be poor. 

Vegetables and meat are most successfully canned 
by the cold-pack method. Fruits keep their shape 
and color better when canned by this method, but 



160 FOODS AND COOKERY 

the open-kettle method may be used more success- 
fully with fruits than with vegetables and meats. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
CANNING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 

To can pears by the cold-pack method : Wash the pears, 
peel, cut into halves and remove the cores. Place in a 
clean, hot, tested jar, packing carefully. Over the 
pears pour boiling syrup until the can is filled to within 
one fourth inch of top ; adjust lid and partially seal. 
Place can in hot-water bath cooker, having the water 
deep enough to come one inch above the top of the can. 
The time for boiling, or " processing " as it is called, 
is given in the table at the end of the lesson. Remove 
can from cooker and seal at once. Follow the directions 
about removing the can which come with the pressure 
cooker. Never remove the lid from the can after 
processing. Turn the can upside down, so that it can 
be observed for leakage (which means a poor seal) and 
place where there is no draft. Lay a towel over the cans 
until they are partly cooled. This will prevent any chance 
of a draft reaching the hot can and causing it to crack. 
When cold, jars may be wrapped in paper and stored, or 
placed in a dark, cool, dry place without wrapping. 

To test a jar : Fill the jar half full of water. Test the 
can-rubber. Place the rubber and lid on can. Seal. 
Turn can upside down. If it does not leak after stand- 
ing a few minutes it is in good condition to use for 
canning. When using the jar, be sure that the same 
lid with which it was tested is replaced on the jar. If a 
jar leaks, remove the lid and test with another lid. In 
using glass lids there sometimes will be found a rough 
spot on the lid or on the jar that may be removed by 
scraping with a knife, after which the fit will be perfect. 
If jars are heated before using, then hot syrup, water, 
or broth may be poured into them without cracking the 



FOODS AND COOKERY 161 

jar, and the jar may be placed in hot water in the water 
bath, which means a saving of time in cooking. 

SYRUP FOR CANNING 

Use three cups of sugar to two cups of water, boiling 
until as thick as desired. Usually for canning fruit by the 
method given for canning pears, a medium thick syrup 
would be best to use. A medium thick syrup is one that has 
begun to thicken and becomes sticky when cooled on the 
spoon. For very sour fruits a thicker syrup should be used. 
To can tomatoes by the cold-pack method : Scald or 
" blanch " tomatoes lj minutes. The easier way to do 
this is to place the tomatoes in a frying-basket and set 
the basket into boiling water. Lift out the basket and 
dip at once into cold water. Remove from water, re- 
move skins and stem-ends. Pack tightly into tested 
jars, pressing down gently but firmly. This will cause 
enough juice to form in the can so that no boiling water 
need be added. Add 1 teaspoon salt to each quart. 
Adjust rubber and lid, partially seal. Place in hot- 
water bath, steam cooker, or pressure cooker. Cook for 
the required length of time, as given in the table at 
end of lesson. For finishing the canning, follow direc- 
tions given in the recipe for canning peas. 

All vegetables must be blanched, then cold-dipped 
before packing in cans. This reduces the bulk, does 
away with objectionable flavors and makes the color 
better. In canning most vegetables, it is necessary to 
add boiling water to fill the can after the food is packed 
in the can. The can should be filled to within a quarter 
inch of the top. 

TIME TABLE FOR PROCESSING FRUITS AND 
VEGETABLES 

This is the time required for quart jars. For pints, 
reduce the time five minutes. 



1G2 



FOODS AND COOKERY 







Fob Hot- 


For Pressure 


For Steam 


Blanch 

for Either 

Method 




water Bath 


Cooker 


Cooker 




Minutes 


Minutes 


Minutes 


Minutes 


Apples . . . 


15 to 25 


5 lbs. for 10 


15-25 


2 


Beans, string 


120 to 180 


20 lbs. for 40 


120-180 


5 to 10 


Cherries . . 


1G 


5 lbs. for 5 to 6 


16 


1 


Corn . . . 


180 


20 lbs. for 40 


180 


5 to 15 


Greens . . 


90 


20 lbs. for 30 to 35 


120 


15 to 20 


Peaches 


20 


5 lbs. for 5 to 10 


20 


i 

2 


Pears . . . 


20 to 30 


5 lbs. for 5 to 10 


20 


1* 


Peas . . . 


120 


20 lbs. for 40 


120 


5 to 10 


Pineapple 


20 to 30 


5 lbs. for 10 


20 


3 


Sweet peppers 


90 


20 lbs. for 35 


90 


10 


Strawberries . 


8 to 16 


5 lbs. for 5 to 6 


8-16 





Tomatoes 


22 


10 lbs. for 10 


22 


\ to 1 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. Name the two methods used for canning fruits, vegetables 
and meats. 

2. Which is the older method ? the better method ? 

3. Name the types of cookers that may be used in canning. 
In which can the processing be done most rapidly? 

4. What are the necessary characteristics of a jar used for 
canning? 

5. What type of jar is best to purchase? 

(3. What is the price per dozen of pint jars? of quart jars? 
of half-pint jars? 

7. Is it advisable to use tin cans for home canning? 

8. State the method for testing rubbers. 

9. How should a jar be tested before using? 

10. What should be the quality of fruits and vegetables 
selected for canning? 

11. What is meant by the term "processing"? blanching? 

12. Why must the lids never be removed from the cans after 
processing ? 

JELLY-MAKING 



Jelly is made from the juice of fruits. Good jelly 
is clear, of a pleasing color, tender and firm enough 
to keep its shape when turned out of the mold. It 




FOODS AND COOKERY 163 

should not, however, be so stiff that it does not 
" quiver." 

Fruit juice can be made into jelly when it con- 
tains two substances, (1) pectin and (2) acid. All 
fruits do not contain these in sufficient amounts 
to make good jelly; and often it is necessary to 
combine the juices of two fruits before the juice will 
"jell." Sugar helps to make the juice form jelly, 
but unless pectin 
and acid are present, 
no amount of sugar 
will have that effect. 

Fruits used for 
jelly should not be 

over-ripe, and some- types of jblly-olasskh 

times it is better to 

use green fruits, because as fruit ripens it contains 
less pectin and acid. Tart apples, grapes, currants, 
crab apples and plums are good fruits to use for 
making jelly. Sweet ripe apples, strawberries, 
blackberries, peaches and pears are poor fruits 
from which to make jelly. 

Lemon and orange peel contain pectin in consider- 
able amounts and are sometimes used to make fruit 
juices "jell." Remove the yellow layer of the peel 
and put the white material that is left through the 
food-grinder, cover with water and let stand several 
hours, then cook slowly for two or three hours, strain 
the liquid and add it to the fruit juice that lacks 
pectin. 

Sometimes fruits lack acid and are improved for 
jelly-making by adding lemon juice. 

It is always best to test the juice in order to de- 
termine how much sugar should be added to make 



164 FOODS AND COOKERY 

good jelly, since fruits of the same variety vary when 
grown under different conditions. This is done by 
placing one teaspoonful of fruit juice and one 
teaspoonful of grain alcohol together in a glass and 
allowing it to stand for five minutes. Pour slowly 
from the glass and observe the mass formed ; if a 
firm mass that does not break apart has been formed, 
then the proportion of one cup of sugar to each cup 
of juice is correct; if the mass breaks apart into 
several pieces, use three fourths of a cup of sugar 
to one cup of juice ; if the mass shows no distinct 
lumps, use one half cup or less of sugar to each 
cup of juice. This test saves a great deal of time 
and trouble in making jelly. 

In straining the juice from the fruit after cooking, 
a jelly-bag is used. It is usually made from firm 
cotton cloth that has been thoroughly washed and 
boiled. The bag may be made three-cornered in 
shape, so that the juice drips from a corner when 
hung to drain. 

Jelly is usually put up in glasses made for the 
purpose. These should be sterilized by placing 
them in cold water, bringing it to the boiling-point 
and boiling for twenty minutes. Do not wipe the 
glasses ; take them from the water with a lifter or 
wooden spoon and fill at once. 

Jelly should be covered. An easy method is to 
use paraffin, which may be melted and poured over 
the top of the jelly. Cover the glasses, either with 
the lid that comes with the regular jelly-glass, or 
with white paper tied on. Store in a dark, cool, dry 
place. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 165 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
JELLY-MAKING 

Experiment : Test the following juices to determine what 
proportion of sugar to juice should be used : grape, 
sweet apple, plum, crab apple, peach. If necessary, 
add a measured amount of juice, extracted from lemon 
peel or orange peel, to the tested juice to make it respond 
to the test. 

CRAB APPLE JELLY 

Wash the apples, cut into quarters and remove cores. 
Add water to the apples, using about half as much water 
as there is fruit. Boil until tender; place in wet jelly- 
bag ; drain, but do not squeeze bag. Measure the juice 
and measure the amount of sugar to be used according 
to the pectin test. Boil the juice a few minutes; add 
the sugar, which has been warmed by placing in the oven ; 
boil gently until the jelly coats the spoon or until a drop 
" jells " when dropped on a cold saucer. Pour into hot 
sterilized glasses. 

What can you make from the pulp and skins in the bag ? 

GRAPE JELLY 

Choose grapes that are not over-ripe; wash and pull 
from stems ; place in stew-kettle ; add one cup of water 
for each four quarts of grapes. Cook until the grape skins 
burst and the fruit is thoroughly softened ; place in wet 
jelly-bag to drain. What proportion of sugar should be 
used ? Follow directions given under Crab Apple Jelly. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What two substances must fruit contain before good jelly 
can be made from it ? 

2. Give the steps in jelly-making. 

3. How should a jelly-glass be sterilized? 

4. How should jelly be cared for after it is cooled? 

5. What are the characteristics of good jelly? 



166 FOODS AND COOKERY 

CHRISTMAS LESSONS 

Home-made candy, packed attractively in pretty 
boxes or baskets, makes a good Christmas gift. 

Small children are better without candy, but it 
may be used by older persons if it is eaten in reason- 
able amounts. Candy is more easily digested at 
the end of a meal than between meals. Candy 
contains a large proportion of sugar, and sugar 
when eaten alone is irritating to the digestive 
organs. A great deal of sugar is found in some 
dried fruits, such as raisins, dates and figs, and 
in this form sugar is better for the small child than 
in candy. 

Loaf, granulated and powdered are the forms in 
which sugar is sold. Sugar is made either from 
sugar cane or sugar beets. The juice which is 
extracted goes through many processes before the 
sugar is ready for the market. 

When making candies that are to be of a creamy 
consistency, it is better to use part glucose instead 
of all granulated sugar. Commercial glucose is a syrup 
that does not crystallize, and therefore helps to keep 
the candy smooth and creamy. Commercial glucose 
is manufactured by boiling cornstarch with an acid, 
and is usually sold in tin containers. 

By boiling candy mixtures to different tempera- 
tures, different types of syrup may be made. It 
is always best to use a candy thermometer in order 
to know when the syrup is cooked enough but not 
too much. When making fudge, panocha and fon- 
dant, the candy should be cooked until it reaches 
the "soft-ball stage", 236° F. ; for chocolate cara- 
mels, cook to the " hard-ball stage", 254° F. ; for 



FOODS AND COOKERY 107 

butterscotch, popcorn balls and molasses taffy, cook 
to the "crack stage", 270° F. 

Caramelized sugar is sugar that has been heated 
without moisture until it melts and becomes a brown 
syrup. When this is poured over peanuts it is 
known as "peanut brittle." Caramelized sugar is 
used also for flavoring custards and cake icings, 
and in sauces. 

Other materials that may be used in cookery to 
take the place of sugar are honey, maple sugar and 
syrups of different kinds. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 
CANDIES 
FONDANT 

2 c. granulated sugar \ c. cold water 

Mix the sugar and water, place in saucepan over the 
fire and stir until sugar is dissolved. Allow the syrup to 
boil gently until it reaches the " soft-ball " stage. Turn 
into a greased platter and let stand until a thin film forms 
on the top, then beat with a wooden spoon until it be- 
comes creamy and white. Wash the hands in cold water 
and knead the fondant. Wrap the fondant in oiled paper 
and let it stand in the ice-box a few hours, or longer if 
desired. It is then in good condition for making into 
various kinds of candy. 

Use in the following ways : 

1. Add chopped English walnut meats to some of the 
fondant, flavor with vanilla, mold into balls. 

2. Cover almonds with flavored fondant. 

3. Remove the seeds from dates and refill with the 
flavored fondant. 

4. With a toothpick, take up a tiny bit of coloring ma- 
terial and add to fondant. Knead until thoroughly mixed, 
add any flavoring preferred, mold into shape desired. 



168 FOODS AND COOKERY 

PEANUT BRITTLE 

1 c. sugar | c. peanuts 

Place sugar in frying-pan over fire and stir until the 
sugar is melted and the syrup is a light brown color. Add 
peanuts and pour immediately into a buttered pan or 
plate. Mark into squares when the brittle is slightly 
cooled. 

PANOCHA 

1 c. brown sugar 1 tbsp. butter 

1 c. granulated sugar 1 c. nut meats 

\ c. milk 1 tsp. vanilla 

y 1 ^ tsp. salt 

Mix sugar, milk and salt. Boil until it reaches the 
" soft-ball " stage ; add butter, vanilla and chopped nuts ; 
cool slightly, beat until thick, spread on buttered pan. 
Mark into squares before it is too hard to cut easily. 

PARISIAN SWEETS 

1 c. figs 1 c. dates 1 c. nuts 

Clean dates and figs, and grind the three ingredients 
through food-grinder. If they are mixed before grinding 
they blend more easily. Place on bread-board dredged 
with powdered sugar, knead thoroughly, press out into 
sheets about one half inch thick. Cut into squares ; roll 
each square in powdered sugar. 

SALTED ALMONDS 

Use Jordan almonds if possible. Blanch by letting 
them stand in boiling water until the skin is loosened. 
Remove the skins, being careful not to break the almonds 
apart when handling them. Place olive oil in a frying- 
pan and when it is hot add the nuts ; stir over fire until 
nuts are a light brown color ; remove from fat and drain 
on paper. Sprinkle with salt. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 169 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. When should candy be eaten? Why? 

2. What may be substituted for candy when a small child 
wants sweets? 

3. From what is sugar made? 

4. In what forms may sugar be purchased ? 

5. What is the price per pound of granulated sugar? of 
powdered sugar ? of lump or loaf sugar ? 

6. How is loaf sugar used ? 

7. Why is it better to use a thermometer when making 
candy ? 

8. To what temperature should a syrup be cooked for the 
"soft-ball" stage? "hard-ball" stage? "crack" stage? 

9. Give examples of candies with which each of these tem- 
peratures should be used. 

10. What is caramelized sugar? 



THE CARE OF THE HOUSE 

The housekeeper who does her work most easily 
follows a plan or schedule. Such a schedule will need 
to be varied often, because of interruptions of differ- 
ent kinds, but having the plan helps to prevent 
friction, saves time and energy, and makes possible 
some time that can be used for recreation. There is 
certain work, such as making beds, planning and 
cooking meals, that must be done every day and is 
called " daily tasks" ; there are certain other duties, 
such as the laundry work, that come once a week 
and are called "weekly tasks " ; and there is work 
that does not come so frequently, such as canning 
fruit, which is called the "occasional tasks." 

When making a schedule, first make a plan for the 
daily tasks, allowing time that can be used for the 
weekly and occasional tasks. The arrangement of 
the work will depend upon the location of the home, 



170 FOODS AND COOKERY 

the type of family, the standard of living, and 
whether household helpers are employed. The be- 
ginning housekeeper will have to experiment with 
her work until she finds the best arrangement of 
tasks. 

Good equipment, including labor-saving devices 
for housework, will save the housekeeper a great 
deal of time and energy. Good equipment for cleaning 
should include good brooms, dust mops, a wet mop 
with wringer, dust cloths, polishing cloths, cleaning 
powders, soaps, brushes, plenty of clean cloths, 
and a suction-sweeper if there are many large rugs 
or carpets to keep in order. A cupboard or closet 
in which all this equipment may be kept is a great 
convenience. 

The daily cleaning will consist of using the dust 
mop on hard-wood or painted floors ; perhaps it will 
be necessary to run the sweeper over some of the 
rugs, and the furnishings in the much used rooms 
will need dusting. Every room in constant use 
should be thoroughly cleaned once a week. Dust 
the small articles and remove them from the room ; 
if the windows are to be washed, take down the 
curtains and remove them from the room for dusting ; 
open the windows ; wipe down the walls with a broom 
that is covered with a clean bag or cloth ; use the 
suction-sweeper on the rugs, or a dampened broom 
if no sweeper is available ; clean the floor with the 
dust mop ; wipe the windows, or wash them if nec- 
essary ; dust all the woodwork and furniture ; re- 
hang the draperies and replace the small articles. 

When cleaning a bedroom, first remove all the 
bed-clothing from the room. Occasionally the mat- 
tress may be taken out, aired and sunned. The 



FOODS AND COOKERY 171 

mattress may be cleaned regularly with the suction- 
sweeper which has special apparatus for such pur- 
poses. If not taken out, the mattress should be 
covered with papers or a sheet while the room is 
being cleaned. 

The bathroom needs some cleaning every day. 
Scour the washstand and tub with a mild cleaning 
powder ; rinse thoroughly with clean water. Clean 
the faucets (directions are given in the section on 
dishwashing). Use a brush made for the purpose 
to clean the trap in the closet ; wash off the outside 
of the closet and water tank. Use the dust mop on 
a hard-wood floor ; a floor covered with linoleum 
should be mopped with clean water at least once a 
week. 

Porches usually need sweeping every day, and 
must be scrubbed when necessary and the weather 
permits. 

The equipment used in cleaning should itself be 
cleaned before it is replaced in the closet. Dry the 
wet mop thoroughly before hanging it away. Dust 
cloths must not be used when soiled ; "oil dusters" 
are a good type to buy, because they catch and hold 
the dust. Never use a feather duster, because the 
dust it brushes off one place lodges on another. 

The modern house, when cleaned carefully every 
week, closets cleaned when necessary, and curtains 
washed when soiled, does not require the general 
spring or fall " house-cleaning" so familiar to every- 
one. 

HOME PROBLEMS 

Arrange a plan for the work to be done in your 
home every day. Probably your mother already 



172 FOODS AND COOKERY 

has such a plan and will tell you which task she does 
first, second, etc. 

What part of the work do you perform ? At what 
time in the day do you do it ? What are the weekly 
tasks done in your home? Do you help with any 
of them ? How much time every week do you spend 
on these tasks? 

Make a list of work that you consider " occasional 
tasks." 

Clean one room at home and write a report telling 
just how you did the work. 

THE CARE OF THE HOUSE (Continued) 

One of the " occasional tasks" to be done in every 
home is the cleaning and putting in order of the 
closets. This should be done as often as is necessary. 
Clothing that has been discarded should be removed 
and given, either to some person who can use it, or to 
a charitable organization, or put in the "rag-bag" 
to be sold to the junk dealer. Soiled clothing should 
not be allowed to hang in closets for long periods. 

To clean the clothes closet : remove all clothing ; 
assort and remove the articles that are not to be put 
back ; take out all boxes, bags and shoes ; wash the 
shelves with warm water and wipe dry ; wash the 
inside of drawers in the same way; wipe floor, if 
not waxed, with a damp cloth ; use an oil duster if 
the floor is waxed ; air the closet thoroughly ; dust 
and replace boxes ; hang clothing, bags and cases. 

Winter clothing, which is to be put away for the 
summer after being thoroughly brushed, or perhaps 
cleaned, may be placed in moth-proof cedar bags, 
chests, or drawers. Clothing, blankets, or rugs that 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



173 



are to be put away must be clean and may be wrapped 
in papers to keep out the dust. When articles are 
stored in this way, it is wise to inspect them often 
to be sure that they are free from moths. 

Boxes and bags can be labeled in such a way that 
articles may be easily found. A list showing where 




Pasteboard House, with Furnishings 

In process of construction by the Home Economics class in Columbia 
City, Indiana. 



each article is stored is a convenient record. This list 
might be put on cards that fit into a card-index box 
and thus be among the records that every house- 
keeper would find useful. Other records kept in 
the box might be : the sizes of garments worn by 
each member of the family ; clippings from papers 
giving household hints, garden hints, or sugges- 



174 FOODS AND COOKERY 

tions for social affairs ; addresses of persons or 
firms to whom one writes in a business or social 
way. Every housekeeper will make her own list of 
desirable records. The use of such a card file 
saves the loss of time and energy in " looking for 
things." 

Drawers in dressers, chiffoniers and dressing-tables 
should be kept in order at all times, but it is a wise 
plan to remove everything from the drawers once 
a month and wipe out with a damp cloth. If the 
bottom of the drawer is not well finished, it may 
be covered with paper before the articles are re- 
placed. 

Curtains and draperies should be cleaned when- 
ever they need to be. In cities where soft coal is 
used, it is often necessary to clean white curtains 
every month. Wool and silk draperies must be 
dry-cleaned at home or sent to a cleaning establish- 
ment often enough to keep them in a sanitary con- 
dition. White curtains of net or lace should not 
be ironed, but should be dried on curtain stretchers 
in order that they may not lose their shape. Scrim, 
voile and marquisette curtains look better when 
ironed. Muslin, Swiss, or lawn curtains should 
always be ironed. When washing any open- weave 
material, such as scrim, it is better to squeeze 
it between the hands than to rub it. Curtains 
should be well shaken and then soaked in warm 
soapsuds, washed in hot soapsuds, rinsed thoroughly 
in several waters, and if white must be put through 
bluing water ; they may be slightly starched if 
desired. When curtains are to be dried and ironed, 
hang them, doubled lengthwise, with the lengthwise 
fold over the clothesline ; never hang them by the 



FOODS AND COOKERY 175 

corners ; dampen and fold carefully ; iron crosswise 
of the curtain, being careful not to stretch the edges 
in any way. 

There are many tasks about the home that can be 
performed by the daughter to assist the mother, 
and girls who study Home Economics should do such 
work well. Suggested work for the girl would in- 
clude : caring for her bedroom, putting away her 
clothing, collecting her clothing for the laundry, 
polishing the silver, dusting, serving a meal and 
sometimes preparing a meal, washing dishes, mend- 
ing, and helping with the care of a small child. 

Housekeeping is a very interesting business, and 
©very girl wants to be a good housekeeper — feed- 
ing, clothing and housing her family well. In ad- 
dition she wishes to be a good home-maker, making 
the house a happy, inspiring place for children to 
develop in and for older people to enjoy. She is a 
good home-maker when she is intelligent, alert, 
happy and active ; when she does her housework 
so efficiently that she has time to be interested in 
church, social and civic affairs, and to help make 
good conditions in her community. 

HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS 

To what organizations in the community do women 
belong ? 

What is the purpose of each organization ? 

What organizations for girls are there in your 
community ? 

Collect pictures of furnishings you would like to 
have in your bedroom. Furniture catalogues and 
advertisements in magazines and newspapers will 



176 FOODS AND COOKERY 

be helpful for this. Discuss in class the furnishings 
of the bedroom. Discuss the care of the bedroom. 
A booklet on "My Bedroom" might be made. 

FOOD FOR THE SICK 

When serious illness occurs in the family the 
patient is often taken to a hospital for treatment 
because there conditions are such that the best of 
equipment is available, with trained workers to 
look after the welfare of the patient. There are, 
however, many cases of illness not serious enough 
to make it necessary to send the patient to the hos- 
pital, yet in which the patient must stay in bed 
and have good care. In such cases some one in the 
home must do the nursing and should have some 
knowledge of such work. 

One of the most important things for the home 
nurse to know is how to prepare and serve the food 
which the patient needs. Food is especially im- 
portant, because a poorly nourished body cannot 
resist nor overcome disease, and in many cases 
regulating the diet is the main treatment. For 
special diet of this sort, the home nurse will follow 
carefully the doctor's instructions regarding kind, 
amount and preparation of food. 

No one in bed can digest the kind or quantity of 
food that the person can who is taking exercise. 
Patients often are given too much food while in bed ; 
in other instances the patient does not get enough 
food. 

If the invalid's appetite is poor, perhaps it can be 
stimulated by serving fruit juice, by giving meat 
broth, or by making the tray extremely attractive. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 



177 




178 FOODS AND COOKERY 

To make the invalid's tray attractive there are several 
points to remember : 

1. Do not have too great a variety of foods on 
the tray at one time. 

2. Do not serve large portions of food. 




Invalid's Tray, Well Arranged 

3. Have all foods well cooked and served in a 
neat way. 

4. Use attractive dishes and linen that is 
absolutely clean. 

5. A flower on the tray makes it more at- 
tractive. It may be laid on the tray or placed in 
a small vase which is set on it. 

6. Sometimes serving the meal as two courses 
will make it more appetizing to the patient. 

7. Used dishes and trays should be removed 
from the room as soon as the patient is done with 
them. 



FOODS AND COOKERY 179 

8. The tray used for serving the meal should 
be large enough, but not so large that it is hard to 
handle. A rectangular tray is more convenient 
than a round one. 

9. The temperature of the food served must 
be watched carefully. As a rule hot foods should 
be served hot and cold foods served cold, but under 
certain conditions the rule may have to be modified. 

10. Never ask a sick person what kind of food is 
desired. When the food is a " surprise" it some- 
times stimulates the appetite. 

Dietaries for invalids may be classified in the 
following way : 

1. Liquid, including broths, beef extract, beef 
tea, milk, gruels, eggnog, cream soups, cocoa, etc. 

2. Soft, including soft-cooked eggs, milk toast, 
junket, cooked custards, jellies, etc. 

3. Soft solid, including eggs, creamed toast, 
asparagus, baked custards, tender chicken, oysters, 
creamed sweetbreads, etc. 

4. Special diet, one ordered by a physician for a 
particular case. 

In many cases of illness it is well to consult the 
physician regarding the type of diet that the patient 
should be given. In the case of high temperatures, 
it is wise to give plenty of water with a liquid diet ; 
in cases of bad colds, grippe, or similar diseases, a 
soft diet may be used ; in cases of constipation, use 
coarse foods which contain large quantities of cellu- 
lose, such as Graham bread, vegetables, fruits and 
cereals. The fruits are especially valuable in the 
treatment of constipation because of the organic 
acids they contain. Any one troubled with consti- 



180 FOODS AND COOKERY 

pation should eat meals regularly, take plenty of 
exercise, drink plenty of water and should be 
regular in regard to the calls of nature. 

The convalescent patient should have his or her 
requests for certain foods gratified whenever the 
food is suitable and the requests reasonable. 

HOME PROBLEMS AND QUESTIONS 

Read in books and bulletins on nursing about the 
proper kind of sick-room. Make a drawing showing 
how the room should be arranged. 

What type of clothing should a home nurse wear ? 
Why? 

Perhaps a nurse in the neighborhood can give 
demonstrations on making the patient's bed, giving 
the patient's bath, and on first aid. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

INVALID COOKERY 

JUNKET 

| c. milk £ junket tablet 

1 tbsp. sugar 1 tsp. cold water 

| tsp. vanilla Few grains salt 

Dissolve junket tablet in the cold water. Heat milk 
in top part of double-boiler, add sugar, salt, flavoring and 
dissolved junket tablet. Pour quickly into small molds, 
let stand in a warm place until set, then put in a cold place 
to chill. Remove from molds and serve with or without 
sugar and cream. Sugar may be omitted if desired. 

EGGNOG 

1 egg 1| tbsp. fruit juice or 

| tbsp. sugar £ tsp. vanilla 

Few grains salt f c. cold milk 



FOODS AND COOKERY 181 

Beat egg slightly ; add sugar, salt and fruit juice slowly ; 
and add the milk gradually. Strain and serve. Sugar 
may be omitted if the fruit juice is sweetened. 

OATMEAL GRUEL 

\ c. rolled oats \ tsp. salt 

1^ c. boiling water Milk or cream 

Add oats, mixed with salt, to boiling water ; let boil two 
minutes, then cook in double-boiler one hour. Strain, 
bring to boiling-point, and add milk or cream to meet the 
needs of the case. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. State the points that are essential to remember when pre- 
paring an invalid's tray. 

2. Into what classes may diets for invalids be divided ? 

3. Make a day's menu for a patient who is in bed with a bad 
cold. What type of diet is this ? 

4. What foods should be eaten when one is troubled with 
constipation ? 

5. State several ways in which milk may be served to invalids 
living on a liquid diet. 

6. State several ways in which egg may be served to an invalid 
living on a soft diet. 

7. Why are milk and eggs important foods to use in invalid 
cookery ? 

8. Should a large amount of meat be used in an invalid's diet? 
Why? Name some kinds to serve and ways of preparing them 
for an invalid on a soft-solid diet. 

9. Where can junket tablets be purchased? 



INDEX 



Air in refrigerator, circulation 

of, 25 
Almonds, salted, 168 
Apple, baked, 30 
Apple sauce, 39 
Artificial ice, 31 

Bacon, broiled, 62 
Baker's bread, 52-53 
Baking, 5 

bread, 50-52 
Baking powder, 88-89 
Baking-powder biscuits, 90 
Baking soda, 89 
Banana salad, 83 
Batter cakes, 56 
Beans, baked, 78 
Beef, casserole of, 122 

creamed dried, 63 

cuts of, 123-126 

pan-broiled steak, 122 

pot roast, 128 

roast, 122 

stew, 129 

stock, 131 

Swiss steak, 128 
Beef and rice croquettes, 105 
Beverages, 30-35 
Blanc mange, 118 
Boiling, 5 
Braising, 5 
Bread, 46-56 

crumbs, 54, 75 

nut, 98 

quick, 87-90 
"Bread and Bread-making in the 
Home ",53 



Bread-mixer, 50, 51 

Breakfast, cereals for, 45-46 
dishes for, 62, 63, 65, 69 
eggs for, 58-60 
planning the, 27-29 
table of food Calories for, 
147 

Broiling, 4 

Butter, value as food, 148 

Cake, 91-94 

date, 98-99 

sponge, 94 

standard, 93 
Cake-making, 92-93 
Cake-mixer, 92 
Calorie, 143-147, 150-153 
Calorimeters, 144-145 
Candies, fondant, 167 

panocha, 168 

Parisian sweets, 168 

peanut brittle, 168 
Candy, 166-168 
Canned fruits, 37, 157-162 
Canning, 157-162 
Can-rubbers, 159 
Caramel syrup, 43 
Caramelized sugar, 167 
Carbohydrates, 8 
Care, of the house, 169-176 
Carrots and peas, 110-111 
Cereals, 43-46 
Certified milk, 41 
Cheese, 73-75 

souffle, 74 

strata, 75 
"Chemical Composition of 



183 



184 



INDEX 



American Food Materials, 
The ", 109, 146-147 
Chicken, 133-134, 135-137 

stewed, 136 
Child, proper food for, 148 
China, selection of, 61 
Christmas lessons, 166-168 
Cleaning, household, 170-172 
Cleanliness, at table, 96-97 

in the kitchen, 11-13 

when cooking, 7 
Closets, cleaning, 172 
Clothing, care of, 172-173 
Coal stove, 15, 16, 17 
Cocoa, 32, 35 
Coffee, 32-33, 34 
Cold-pack method of canning, 

157-161 
Cold storage, 153-154 
Combination service, 67 
Compressed yeast, 48 
Condensed milk, 41 
Conserve, grape, 155-156 
Conveniences, in kitchen, 13 
Cook book, card-file, 4 
Cooked dressing, 82 
Cookers, for canning, 158 
Cookery, processes used in, 3-6 
Cookies, 91 

Cooking, importance of following 
directions in, 5 

utensils, 17-18 
Corn, scalloped, 110 
Corn bread, Southern spoon, 90 
Corn soup, cream of, 71-72 
Cornstarch, 116 

" Cover", in table service, 65-67 
Crab apple jelly, 165 
Cream, 40 
Cream of wheat with dates, 

45-46 
Cream toast, 42 
Croquettes, 104-105 
Croutons, 72 
Custard, baked, 99 



Date, cakes, 98-99 

pudding, 86 
Desserts, 138-142 

frozen, 149 
Diet, proper, 27-29, 147-148 
Dietaries for the sick, 179 
Dining room, the, 60-69 
Dinner, menu for, 129, 143 

plan for, 101-103 

planning the, 139-140 
Directions in cooking, importance 

of following, 5 
Dishwashing, 21-24 
Draperies, care of, 174 

for dining room, 60, 62 
Dress, suitable for cooking, 6 
Dressing, salad, 80, 81-82 
Dried fruits, 37, 84-86 
Dried legumes, 77-78 
Drying, 154 

Eggnog, 180-181 
Eggs, 56-60 

fried or sauted, 137 

hard-cooked, 58 

poached, 58 

scrambled, 59 

soft-cooked, 58 
Electric stove, 16, 17 
English service, 67 
Evaporated milk, 41 

Fat, 8 

Fireless cooker, 18-21 
Fireless gas range, 18 
Fish, 134-135, 137 
Floor, dining room, 60 

kitchen, 11 
Flour, 46-47 

pastry, 91 
Fondant, 167 
Food, economy in using, 70-71 

for the sick, 176-181 

in daily meals, proportions of, 
143-149 



INDEX 



185 



Food — Continued 

100-Calorie portions of cooked, 
153 

100-Calorie portions of un- 
cooked, 152 

principles, 7-8 

some points about, 7-8 

value of eggs as, 57-58 

value of milk as, 39-41 
Foods, preservation of, 153- 

165 
Foodstuffs, five groups of, 7-8 
Freezing mixture, 139 
French dressing, 81 
Fricasseeing, 5 
Frosting, boiled, 94 
Frozen desserts, 139 
Fruit, for breakfast, 29-30 

oranges, 29 

preservation of, 155-165 
Fruits, 37-39 

dried, 84-86 
Frying, 5 
Fuel, 16 
Furniture, dining-room, 61, 62 

Game, 133-134 

Garbage-can, 26 

Gas burner, cleaning, 17 

Gas range, 15-18 

Gelatine, 130-132 

Glucose, 166 

Gluten, 47 

Graham flour, 47 

Grape, conserve, 155-156 

jelly, 165 

juice, 156 
Grapefruit, 38 
Gruel, oatmeal, 181 

Ham and eggs, scalloped, 105 

Hard-cooked eggs, 58 

" Home-made Fireless Cookers 

and their Use ",21 
Hominy, 116 



House, care of the, 169-176 
Housekeeping, 175 

Ice, 31 

artificial, 31 
Ice-box, 13 
Ice cream, freezing, 139 

vanilla, 149 
Ices, lemon, 150 
Invalid cookery, 176-181 
Ironing-board, 13 

Jars, testing preserve, 160 

types of preserve, 158-159 
Jelly-bag, 164 
Jelly, lemon, 132-133 
Jelly-making, 162-165 
Juice for jelly, testing, 163-164, 

165 
Junket, 180 

Kitchen, 10-13 

arrangement of, 12 

floor of, 11 
Knives, 18 

Lamb, 126 

cuts of, 126 
" Left-over" dishes, 103-105 
" Left-overs," 70-71 
Legumes, dried, 77-78 
Lemon, ices, 150 

peel, 163 
Liquid yeast, 49 
Lunch, the school, 95-100 
Luncheon, menu for, 100 

plan for, 70-71 

Macaroni, 115-116 

and cheese, 118 
Manners, table, 63-65 
Marguerites, 36 
Marmalades, 155 

orange, 155 
Mayonnaise dressing, 81-82 



186 



INDEX 



Meals, for the family, 143-149 

proper planning of, 8 
Measurements in cooking, 9-10 
Meat, 119-129 

charts, 124, 125, 126, 127 

for breakfast, 62-63 

substitutes for, 73-74, 76-77 
Menu, dessert in the, 138-139 

for breakfast, 27-29, 65-69 

for dinner, 129, 143 

for luncheon, 84, 100 

for supper, 84, 100 
Milk, 39^2 

Mineral matter in milk, 40 
Minerals, 8 

Mousse, chocolate, 150 
Muffins, 90 

Nut and cheese loaf, 78 
Nut bread, 98 
Nuts, 76-77 

Oatmeal gruel, 181 
Oats, rolled, 21 
Omelette, puffy, 59-60 
Onions, creamed, 111 
Open-kettle method of canning, 

157 
Orangeade, 16 
Orange, marmalade, 155 

peel, 163 
Oranges, 29 
Oysters, 134-135 

scalloped, 136-137 

Pan-broiling, 5 
Panocha, 168 
Parisian sweets, 168 
Parker House rolls, '55-56 
Pasteurized milk, 41 
Pastry, plain, 140-141 
Peaches, sweet pickled, 156 
Peanut brittle, 168 
Pears, canning, 160 
Pea sandwiches, 79 



Peppers, baked stuffed, 10 
Personal appearance, at table, 63 

when cooking, 6-7 
Pie, 138-139 
Poached eggs, 58 
Pork, 126-127 

cuts of, 127 
Potato, 111-114 

baked stuffed, 113 

croquettes, 105 

French fried, 114 

mashed, 26 

riced, 26 
Poultry, 133-134, 135-137 
Preservatives, 154-155 
Primitive cooking, 3-4 
Protein, 8 

in eggs, 57 

in milk, 40 
Prune whip, 86 
Pudding, sauce, 142 

steamed, 141-142 

Quick bread, 87-90 

Recipes, apple sauce, 39 
baked apple, 30 
baked beans, 78 
baked custard, 99 
baked squash, 1 10 
baked stuffed peppers, 10 
baked stuffed potatoes, 113 
baking-powder biscuits, 90 
banana salad, 83 
batter cakes, 56 
beef and rice croquettes, 105 
beef stew, 129 
beef stock, 131 
blanc mange, 118 
boiled frosting, 94 
bread, 49-50 
bread crumbs, 75 
broiled bacon, 62 
candied sweet potatoes, 113 
canning pears, 160 



INDEX 



187 



Recipes — Continued 
canning tomatoes, 161 
caramel syrup, 43 
carrots and peas, 110-111 
casserole of beef, 122 
cheese souffle, 74 
cheese strata, 75 
chocolate mousse, 150 
cocoa, 32 
coffee, 32-33 
cooked dressing, 82 
crab apple jelly, 165 
creamed dried beef, 63 
creamed onions, 111 
cream of corn soup, 71-72 
cream of tomato soup, 71 
cream of wheat with dates, 

45-46 
cream toast, 42 
croquettes, 104-105 
croutons, 72 
date cakes, 98-99 
date pudding, 86 
eggnog, 180-181 
fondant, 167 
French dressing, 81 
French fried potatoes, 114 
French toast, 43 
fried or sauted eggs, 137 
grape conserve, 155-156 
grape jelly, 165 
grape juice, 156 
hard-cooked eggs, 58 
hard sauce, 142 
junket, 180 
lemon ice, 150 
lemon jelly, 132-133 
macaroni and cheese, 118 
marguerites, 36 
marmalades, 155 
mashed potatoes, 26 
mayonnaise dressing, 81-82 
muffins, 90 

nut and cheese loaf, 78 
nut bread, 98 



Recipes — Continued 
oatmeal gruel, 181 
orangeade, 16 
orange marmalade, 155 
pan-broiled steak, 122 
panocha, 168 
Parisian sweets, 168 
Parker House rolls, 55-56 
peanut brittle, 168 
pea sandwiches, 79 
perfection salad, 132 
plain pastry, 140-141 
poached eggs, 58 
potato croquettes, 105 
pot roast, 128 
prune whip, 86 
pudding sauce, 142 
puffy omelette, 59-60 
rice, 118-119 
riced potatoes, 26 
roast beef, 122 
rolled oats, 21 
rolls, 54 

salmon croquettes, 105 
salmon salad, 83 
salted almonds, 168 
sandwiches, 36-37 
scalloped corn, 1 10 
scalloped ham and eggs, 105 
scalloped oysters, 136-137 
scrambled eggs, 59 
soft-cooked eggs, 58 
soup-sticks, 72 
soup stock, 131 

Southern spoon corn bread, 90 
sponge cake, 94 
standard cake, 93 
steamed pudding, 141-142 
stewed chicken, 136 
sweet pickled peaches, 156 
Swiss steak, 128 
syrup for canning, 161 
tea, 33 

tomato sauce, 79 
vanilla ice cream, 149 



188 



INDEX 



Recipes — Continued 

vegetable salad, 83 

vegetable soup, 132 

Welsh rarebit, 75 

white sauces, 41-42 
Records, convenience of keeping, 

173-174 
Refrigerator, 25 
Rice, 114-115, 118 
Roasting, 4 
Rolls, 54-56 
"Routing lines" in kitchen, 12, 

13, 14 
Russian service, 67 

Salad, banana, 173 

perfection, 132 

salmon, 83 

vegetable, 83 
Salad dressings, 80, 81-82 
Salads, 80-83 
Salmon, croquettes, 105 

salad, 83 
Sandwiches, 36-37, 97 

pea, 79 
Sauce, hard, 142 

pudding, 142 

tomato, 79 
Sauteing, 5 
Schedule of work, importance of, 

169-172 
School lunch, 95-100 
Score card for bread, 53 
Service, 65-69 

combination, 67 

English, 67 

Russian, 67 
Sick, food for the, 176-181 
Silence-cloth, 65 
Sink, the kitchen, 11-13 

care of, 24 
Skim milk, 40 
Soap, 22 

Soft-cooked eggs, 58 
Soup, 130-132 



Soup — Continued 

cream of corn, 71-72 

cream of tomato, 71 

stock, 131 

vegetable, 132 
Soup-sticks, 72 
Spaghetti, 116 
Squash, baked, 110 
Starchy foods, 112, 114-119 
Steaming, 5 
Sterilization, 155 
Stewing, 5 
Stoves, 15-18 
Substitutes for meat, 73-74, 

76-77 
Sugar, 166-167 
Supper, menu for, 100 

plan for, 70-71 
Sweet potatoes, candied, 113 
Syrup, caramel, 43 

for canning, 161 

Table, manners, 63-65 

setting the, 65-67 
Table, for processing fruits and 
vegetables, 162 

of Calories for breakfast, 147 

of 100-Calorie portions of 
cooked foods, 153 

of 100-Calorie portions of un- 
cooked foods, 152 

of warmth and energy require- 
ments, 145 
Tapioca, 116-117 
Tea, 33, 34-35 
Temperatures in cooking, 19 
Tests of juice for jelly, 163-164 
Thermometer, 19 

candy, 166-167 
Toast, 46, 54 

cream, 42 

French, 43 
Tomato sauce, 79 
Tomato soup, cream of, 71 
Tomatoes, canning, 161 



INDEX 



189 



Utensils, cooking, 17-18 

Veal, 126 

cuts of, 125 
Vegetable salad, 83 
Vegetables, 106-114 
Vermicelli, 116 
Vitamines, 8, 37, 40, 47 

Washing fruit, 38 



Water, 8, 30-31 

hard and soft, 22 
Water glass, 57 
Welsh rarebit, 75 
White sauces, 41-42 
Whole-wheat flour, 47 
Wood stove, 15, 16, 17 
Work, schedule of, 169-172 

Yeast, 47-49 



